ALPS
TAKING a general view of the earth’s surface, the continent of Europe appears to be no more than a great peninsula extending westward from the much vaster continent of Asia. Its shores are deeply indented by two inland seas connected by narrow straits with the Atlantic Ocean, and these in their turn are divided into gulfs that penetrate still more deeply into the land, and form a number of secondary peninsulas. The Mediterranean Sea, by its branches—the Gulf of Genoa, the Adriatic, and the Aegean Sea—forms the Iberian, the Italian, and the Greek peninsulas; and the Baltic Sea, extending northward into the Gulf of Bothnia, forms on one side the great Scandinavian peninsula, and on the other that of Denmark. Save the last, all these peninsulas of Europe are essentially mountain regions, traversed by lofty chains that occupy a large portion of their surface. But in height and importance these are much surpassed by a great mountain zone stretching from the south-east of France to the frontiers of Hungary, and between Italy and the plains of southern Germany, which is collectively known as the Alps, and which must be considered as the most important feature in the physical geography of our continent. Of the influence of this mountain system on the climate of th® surrounding regions, on the distribution of animal and vegetable life, and, indirectly, on the political condition of Europe, some brief notice will here be given; but it may be well to remark that owing to the peculiar disposition of the greater masses which form this system, the Alps do not present so continuous a barrier as might be expected from a comparison with other great mountain ranges.
Thus if we take the great masses of the Himalaya in Asia, the Andes in South America, or even such lesser ranges as the Pyrenees or the Great Atlas, we find that they interpose a far more absolute limit between the regions lying on their opposite flanks than occurs in respect to the Alps. These are formed of numerous ranges divided by comparatively deep valleys, which, with many local exceptions, tend towards parallelism with the general direction of the entire mass. This, between Dauphiné and the borders of Hungary, forms a broad band convex towards the north, and most of the main valleys lie between the directions west to east and south-west to north-east. But in many parts deep transverse valleys intersect the prevailing direction of the ridges, and facilitate the passage not only for purposes of human intercourse, but also for the migration of animals and plants, and for currents of air which mitigate the contrast that would otherwise be found between the climates of the opposite slopes.
The received opinion is, that the name Alps is derived from a Celtic root— alp or alb— signifying height. This has been connected by some writers with the Latin alb, albus, white, referring to the colour of the peaks. Strabo says that the name ῎Aλπια was formerly ῎Aλβια. Alp in south Germany— alpa in old High German—is exclusively applied to mountain pastures. For the present the derivation must remain somewhat uncertain.
To define the precise limits of the Alps, as will be seen fully in describing the several groups, is a somewhat arbitrary operation. To the W. they extend through a large portion of the French departments of Savoie, Haute-Savoie, Hautes Alpes, and Basses Alpes, being divided from the mountain district of the Cevennes by the broad and deep valley through which the Rhone flows from Lyons to the Mediterranean. The Jura range, usually regarded as distinct from the Alps, is nevertheless closely connected on one side with the outer ranges of the Alps of western Savoy, and on the other with those of northern Switzerland. On the N. side the Alps are definitely bounded by the lake of Constance, the plain of Bavaria, and the low country extending from Salzburg to the neighbourhood of Vienna. By these they are completely separated from the mountainous districts of central Germany, which extend through western Bohemia and Saxony in one direction to the Hartz mountains, and in the other to the Sudeten, or Riesengebirge, of Silesia. Hence it happens that the drainage of the northern slopes of the Alps flows either to the North Sea through the Rhine, or is diverted through the Danube to the Black Sea, and no portion of it reaches the Baltic. The eastern limit of the Alps is not easily defined with accuracy. The region of high hills, chiefly formed of tertiary strata, that extends from the left bank of the Mur into Hungary is continued by the north side of Lake Balaton to the Danube near Buda; and some geographers see in the hilly district that stretches thence to the northern Carpathians a connection between that range and the Alps. For practical purposes it seems that the line of depression, partly formed by the valley of the Mur, through which the railway is carried from Vienna to Laybach, may be considered as the eastern boundary of the Alpine chain. On the southern side the difficulty of fixing the precise limits of the Alpine chain is still more apparent. For a distance of some 350 miles, from the neighbourhood of Turm to that of Gorizia, the boundary is sufficiently obvious. The mountains subside into the continuous plain which includes the greater part of Piedmont, Lombardy, and Venetia; and their drainage is all borne eastward to the Adriatic. But on the west side of Piedmont the Alpine chain dividing Italy from France extends nearly due southward till it approaches to the Mediterranean in the neighbourhood of Nice. About 40 miles north of this city, that which, from its superior height and its geological structure, we call the main chain, is bent round from west to cast in a curve, slightly convex towards the south, till it becomes parallel to the Mediterranean shore, and is merged in the chain of the Apennines. For reasons hereafter mentioned it would appear that the limits of the Alps in this direction may best be fixed at the Col d’Altare, west of Savona, though the boundary commonly adopted is that of the Col di Tenda, lying considerably farther to the west. At the southeastern extremity of the Alpine chain the difficulty of fixing its limits arises rather from the vague use of geographical terms by ancient and modern writers than from the physical structure of the region. Taking no account of the arbitrary proceedings of geographers who have included in the Alps the mountains dividing Bosnia from Croatia and Dalmatia, and regarding only the natural features of the country, it seems clear that the south-eastern extremity of the Alps must be looked for in the group of lofty peaks between the head waters of the Isonzo and those of the Save, whose highest summit is the Terglou; and if we are not to include all the mountain ranges of European Turkey and Greece within the same designation, the plateau of the Karst must be held to form the boundary between these and the Alps. Within these limits the Alps extend from about the 44th to the 48th parallel of N. lat., and from about 5° 10' to 18° 10' E. long.
In every mountain system geographers are disposed to regard the watershed, or boundary dividing the waters flowing towards Opposite sides of the range, as marking the main chain; and this usage is often justified by the fact that the highest peaks lie on, or very near, the boundary so defined. In applying this term in the case of the Alps, there are, however, difficulties arising from their great extent and the number of their branches and ramifications. Many of the loftiest groups lie altogether on one side of that which we call the main chain, and at the eastern extremity, where all the drainage is ultimately borne to the Black Sea, we must be partly guided by geological considerations in deciding which of several ranges deserves to be considered pre-eminent.
Starting from the pass of Altare or Cadibona, west of Savona, the main chain extends first south-west, then nearly due west, to the Col di Tenda, but nowhere rising beyond the zone of coniferous trees. ^ Beyond that limit the range is more lofty, and includes four peaks exceeding 10,000 feet in height, till the line dividing the waters flowing to the Adriatic, through the Po, from the short streams that flow into the Gulf of Genoa, reaches the Mont Enchastraye. Beyond that point, although the line of watershed is very sinuous, its general direction for a distance of about 75 miles is nearly due north. On the east side the waters run to the Po; on the west they flow through the Durance to join the Rhone near Avignon. The most considerable peaks in the range immediately north of the Mont Enchastraye are the Grand Rioburent and the Aiguille de Chambeyron; but these are much surpassed by the Monte Viso, which is the highest peak in the range dividing Piedmont from Dauphiné. On the north side of Monte Viso the main chain diminishes much in average height, and presents no prominent peaks until we reach the Mont Tabor. That summit forms the apex of a salient angle which the main chain here presents on the side of France. For a distance of about 28 miles this extends eastward to the prominent peak of the Roche Melon, which may be considered as a re-entering angle in the great rampart by which Italy is guarded from her northern neighbours. Here the main chain resumes its northerly direction, and attains a greater average height than it had previously exhibited. Several of the prominent peaks in the range connecting the Roche Melon with Mont Blanc exceed 11,000 English feet in height, though they are much surpassed by the highest group of the Graian Alps, lying on the side of Piedmont, and that of the Tarentaise Alps in Savoy; while there is in this part of the main range but one considerable depression, which is that crossed by the road of the Little St Bernard. In the range crowned by the summit of Mont Blanc the Alpine chain attains its highest elevation. From thence to the Pass of St Gotthard its general direction varies between east and north-east. To the east of Mont Blanc a comparatively low tract allows of several comparatively easy passes between Switzerland and Piedmont, one of which has long been famous as the Pass of the Great St Bernard; but from that to the Simplon Pass, a distance of about 52 miles in a straight line, or about 75 miles if measured along the watershed, the main chain preserves a greater average height than in any other part. Several peaks lying in the dividing ridge, such as the Grand Combin, Matterhorn, Lyskamm, and Monte Rosa, exceed 14,000 feet in height; and these are rivalled by at least six summits on the north side of the same ridge, which at two points only sinks below the level of 10,000 feet. The Simplon Pass corresponds to what may be called a dislocation of the main chain. From thence to the St Gotthard the dividing ridge runs nearly due north-east, and does not present any dominant summit excepting the Monte Leone. On the east and south-east side of the St Gotthard Pass, as far as that of the Maloya, the line of watershed between the affluents of the Rhine and that of the Po is determined by what may be called accidental conditions. The chief mountain ridges, which culminate in the Cima Camadra, Piz Valrhein, and Tambohorn, instead of being arranged along the parting of the waters, lie in a transverse direction, and hence the natural frontier of Italy is here more broken and irregular than elsewhere; and it is only on the south side of the Maloya Pass that the main chain assumes a tolerably continuous direction from west-south-west to east-north-east, as between Piz Güz and the Bernina Pass it rises into the lofty group whose dominant peaks are Piz Tremoggia, Piz Bernina, and Piz Cambrena. Eastward of the Bernina Pass the same direction is preserved, and in the range including the Corno di Campo, Monte Zembrasca, and Monte Foscagno the level scarcely sinks below 9000 feet; but beyond the last-named summit, in the space lying between the Lower Engadine, the head waters of the Adige, and those of the Adda, the semblance of a continuous ridge forming the watershed between the Inn and the Adriatic altogether disappears. If we adhere to the usage of designating as the main chain the ridges which part the waters flowing in different directions, it must be owned that the disposition of the chief mountain masses has no connection with the direction of that chain. Lying between the great mass of the Orteles Alps to the south and the considerable group of the Silvretta Alps on the north side of the Inn, the greater part of the mass in question is drained by streams that flow into the latter river; but the arrangement of the valleys seems to be largely due to erosive action. Few summits in this part of the main chain exceed 10,000 feet, the highest being Piz Scesvenna, on the east side of Val Scarla.
The break in the continuity of the Alpine chain marked by the deep valley through which the main branch of the Adige descends, first southward and then eastward from its source to Meran and Botzen, is one of the most remarkable features in the orography of the Alps. The little lake which is regarded as the chief source of the river lies within less than five miles of the Inn, where that river enters the Tyrol, and no apparent barrier divides the lake from the Inn valley. Eastward of this limit the Alpine chain exhibits a degree of order in its general arrangement which it is impossible to trace in its western and central portions. For a distance of some 250 miles a broad zone of crystalline rocks extends from west to east, flanked on the north and south sides by parallel zones of sedimentary rocks, chiefly belonging to the older secondary formations. Two great valley systems on the opposite sides of the central zone closely coincide with those geological boundaries, and mark out in the physical aspect of this region the limits between the central and the secondary zones. In the former are situated all the highest peaks of the eastern Alps. For a distance of about 140 miles, from the Schafkogel, south-east of Nauders, to the Markkahrspitz, the average level of the main chain is nearly as high as in any equally long section of the central or western Alps. There is one very considerable depression which is marked by the Brenner Pass, but elsewhere in that long barrier there are but three points where the range is passable by beasts of burden. Between the two main sources of the Adige, at the Reschen Scheideck and the Brenner Pass, the considerable groups of the Oetzthal and Stubay Alps attain a great average elevation, though two points only—the Wildspitz and the Weisskugel—surpass the level of 12,000 feet. The drainage of these groups is mostly carried to the Inn, and the line of watershed, about 53 miles in length, is much less direct than in the more easterly portion of the chain. This extends nearly due east for about 90 miles from the Brenner Pass, nowhere falling below the level of 8000 feet, and in two prominent peaks—the Gross Venediger and the Gross Glockner—rising considerably above the limit of 12,000 feet. At a point somewhat north of the Markkahrspitz the central chain divides into two parallel ranges, between which lies the upper valley of the Mur. This river flows for a distance of fully 80 miles nearly due east, till at Bruck-an-der-Mur it turns southward to approach the Drave, and ultimately joins that stream. Various reasons combine to induce geographers to regard the more northern of the two ranges above mentioned, which divides the Enns and other minor tributaries of the Danube from those of the Drave, as constituting the eastern extremity of the main chain of the Alps. This extends a little north of due east for more than 110 miles, with a comparatively low mean elevation, from the Arlscharte to the Semmering Pass, which we regard as the eastern limit of the main chain of the Alps.
Measured along the watershed, as above defined, but without taking into account the minor sinuosities, which would considerably increase the total, the length of the main chain is about 790 English miles.
For ages before there existed any correct knowledge of the configuration of the Alpine chain, the needs of war and commerce had urged the people dwelling on the opposite sides of the great barrier to seek out the easiest and most direct routes for traversing it. Hence the chief passes of the Alps have been known and frequented from a period antecedent to authentic history, while until a quite modern period little attention was given to the parts of the chain which did not lie in or near the lines of traffic. It is highly probable that many other passes, affording the easiest means of communication between adjacent valleys, have been known and used by the native population from a very remote period, but only those which served for international purposes of war or peace became known at a distance, and are alluded to by ancient writers. A pass is a depression between two adjacent mountains, and the track is usually carried over the lowest part of that depression; but nevertheless nearly all the passes of the Alps involve a long ascent to reach the summit, and a long descent upon the opposite slopes. Hence the Romans, who were the first semi-civilised people to make extensive use of the Alpine passes, applied to each of them the term Mons. The same names, more or less modified in the middle ages, have been preserved in the dialects of Latin origin that prevail throughout the western half of the Alpine chain, and the modern name for the chief passes are still Mont Genévre, Mont Cenis, Mont Iséran, Petit Mont St Bernard, Grand Mont St Bernard, Monte Moro, and Monte San Gottardo. In more recent times, since geographers have attempted to fix the names and positions of the chief summits of the Alps, they have been continually misled by the supposition that a name of high antiquity designating a mountain must belong to some prominent peak. The errors arising from that source have not yet disappeared from geographical works of high repute, but in point of fact each of the names above enumerated belongs solely to the pass, and there is no neighbouring peak entitled to the same designation. The more important passes of the Alps are enumerated in the following description of the chief groups of the Alps; but it may be here remarked that the direction of the main routes for traffic is not exclusively determined by the position of the lowest and easiest passes over the main chain. The configuration of the mountains is such that a traveller proceeding from Italy to France, Switzerland, or Germany, after crossing a comparatively easy pass over the main chain, may find it necessary to traverse a second and loftier pass over a lateral chain, or else follow a circuitous route that may double the length of his journey. Thus a traveller going from Turin to Lyons, who should take what appears to be the direct course over the pass of Mont Genévre, the easiest in the whole range of the western Alps, will find on descending to Briançon that he must cross the much higher and more difficult pass of the Col de Lautaret, or else descend along the Durance till it emerges into the lower country near Gap, and thus more than double the length of his journey. Including the Semmering Pass, there are now not less than 60 Alpine passes that are traversed by carriage roads; and besides three lines of railway now open for traffic, several others are in course of construction.
From the time of Julius Caesar downwards, the Romans, in the prosecution of their policy of universal dominion, or for the purpose of maintaining communication with their military colonies, had become acquainted with all the easiest and most serviceable passes of the Alps, and were thus naturally led to attach names to the chief groups. As their acquaintance with the entire region was very incomplete, the exact boundaries of these groups were imperfectly understood, and the denominations adopted by them were never accurately defined. As might have been expected, the divisions thus roughly established had reference rather to the aspect of the mountains as presented to one travelling from Italy towards the north or west, than to a general view of the physical conformation of the entire region. Hence the ancient divisions are essentially defective, as taking no note of some important groups, or including under a single designation groups entirely distinct. Notwithstanding these defects, the ancient divisions have been adhered to by all but a few modem geographers, and it is therefore desirable to record them separately.
1. Maritime Alps (Alpes Maritimae).—These included the portion of the main chain dividing south-western Piedmont from the coast of the Mediterranean, and extending northward to the neighbourhood of the conspicuous peak of Monte Viso.
2. Cottian Alps (Alpes Cottiae or Cottianae) included the portion of the main chain dividing Piedmont from Dauphine and Savoy, and extending from Monte Viso to the neighbourhood of the Mont Cenis. The name appears to be derived from Cottius, the king or chief of a powerful tribe who ruled the greater part of this region when the paramount authority of Augustus was established in Cisalpine Gaul.
3. Graian Alps (Alpes Graiae).—Under this designation was known the great group of mountains between Turin and the upper Val d’Aosta, and the portion of the main chain lying between the Mont Cenis and the Little St Bernard. Pliny and other Latin writers derive the name from the legendary passage of a body of Greeks led by Hercules through this region; but the true derivation is probably from some lost Celtic appellation.
4. Pennine Alps (Alpes Penninae) was the name applied to the great range including Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa, which, from the time of Julius Caesar, if not earlier, was recognised as the highest portion of the entire chain. The word Pen or Ben is still in use in the living dialects of the Celtic stock as a common designation for a conspicuous mountain, and was certainly in use in the speech of this part of Cisalpine Gaul, where many other Celtic terms are preserved in the local names. The Roman designation Jupiter Penninus was undoubtedly taken from the Celtic root, but the asserted use of the name Pen for a divinity by the native tribes is not established by valid evidence.
5. Lepontine Alps (Alpes Lepontinae).—It would appear that this denomination was originally restricted to the parts of the main chain lying on either side of the pass of St Gotthard, including the sources of the river Ticino, with those of its tributaries, of which the most important is the Tosa or Toccia, draining the range between the neighbourhood of the Simplon Pass and that of the Gries. The name is derived from the Lepontii, a tribe of doubtful extraction (Rhaetian, according to Strabo) who inhabited the main valley of the Tessin or Ticino, the upper part of which is still called Val Leventina. The eastern limit of this group was usually fixed at the pass of San Bernardino.
6. Rhaetian Alps (Alpes Rhaeticae) derived their name from the Rhaeti, a powerful tribe or nation holding a large tract of territory which appears to have extended from the sources of the Rhine and the Ticino on the west, to those of the Adige and the Salza on the east. The area included under this vague heading is at least equal in area to that of the five divisions hitherto enumerated.
7. Noric Alps (Alpes Noricae).—Under this name the entire region lying north of the Drave, and extending thence to the valley of the Danube on the north and the plains of Hungary on the east, was included.
8. Carnic Alps (Alpes Camicae).—This name was given to the mountain tract lying between the upper Drove and the low country of Friuli. By some writers it has been limited to the ranges that feed the Tagliamento (Tilaυentus) and its tributaries; by others the range seems to have been held to extend from the sources of the Piave to those of the Save. The name Carnia is still in use in Friuli, but is strictly limited to the basin of the Tagliamento.
9. Julian Alps (Alpes Juliae).—This designation has been still more vaguely used by ancient and modem geographers than any of the preceding. The lofty group of peaks crowned by the Terglou, and lying between the head waters of the Isonzo and those of the Save, undoubtedly forms the chief nucleus of the group distinguished by this name; but it also appears to have included the ranges of eastern Friuli, which province, as well as the Alps in question, took its name from the Roman Forum Julii, now known as Cividale. By others, and even by contemporary Italian writers, the term Julian Alps is made to extend southward through the district of Karst between Camiola and the shores of the Adriatic, and thence through Croatia to the frontiers of Bosnia. A great part of this district is an undulating plateau, in part not attaining to 2000 feet above the sea-level, to which by no stretch of language can the term Alps be properly applied.
In addition to the groups above mentioned some writers have enumerated the Dinaric Alps (Alpes Dinaricae), and include under that term the mountain range extending along the western frontier of Bosnia. This is a portion of the extensive mountain system of European Turkey, which in one direction includes the Balkan, and in another is continued through Albania into Greece. The Romans probably applied to these the designation Alps as some of their later writers did to the Pyrenees and the mountains of southern Spain; but it can merely cause confusion to speak of them as a portion of the great system to which the name Alps specially applies. , For the reasons already mentioned it is impossible to regard the ancient groups above enumerated as affording a satisfactory division of the region under consideration; but so far as they can be made to correspond with the divisions suggested by a more exact knowledge of its physical configuration, it seems desirable to retain the established nomenclature.
Actual observation of the Alpine region through the greater part of its extent, or even the careful study of accurate models, must convince any one who seeks to divide it into groups that it is not possible to do this by adhering rigidly to any single test or rule. In a general way, it is natural and desirable to include under the same name mountain masses that are not divided by a broad and deep opening; but it is sometimes more convenient to include in one group disjoined masses that have some natural connexion with each other, rather than multiply groups to an inconvenient extent. In some cases the geological structure may supply a rational ground for preferring one arrangement to another, when the choice would otherwise be arbitrary; and in a few cases it may be well to yield something to ancient usage, based upon political or ethnological grounds. Accurate knowledge of the Alps is so recent that few attempts have been made to establish a general division of the entire region, and it cannot be said that any one arrangement has obtained such' general recognition as not to be open to future modification; but there is a pretty general agreement as to the main features of that here proposed, to which a few general remarks must be premised.
Whatever may have been the original cause of those disturbances of the earth’s crust to which great mountain chains owe their existence, it is generally, though not universally, true that the higher masses (formed of rocks geologically more ancient) are found towards the central part, and that these are flanked by lower ranges, composed of more recent rocks, which surround the central groups very much as an outer line of entrenchment may be seen to surround a fort. In most cases it is not possible to descend continuously in a nearly direct line from the crest of a great mountain chain to the plains on either side, for there are usually intermediate valleys, running more or less parallel to the central range, which separate this from outer secondary ranges. These, in their turn, are often accompanied by external ranges, intermediate between them and the plains, and related to them as they are to the central ranges. The type of arrangement here described is more or less traceable throughout the greater part of the Alps, but is most distinctly exhibited in the eastern portion lying between the Adige and the frontier of Hungary. We have a central range, composed mainly of crystalline rock; a northern range, formed of secondary rocks, separated from the first by the great valleys of the Inn, the Salza, and the Enns; a southern range, somewhat similar to the last in geological structure, divided from the central one by the Rienz, or east branch of the Adige, and the Drave. Flanking the whole, as an external entrenchment on the north side, are the outer ranges of the Bavarian Alps, of the Salzkammergut, and of Upper Austria, to which correspond on the south side the Monti Lessini, near Verona, the mountains of Recoaro, those of the Sette Comuni, and the considerable masses crowned by the summits of the Grappa, the Col Vicentino, the Monte Cavallo, the Monte Matajur, and Monte Nanos. Where, as in the cases above mentioned, the secondary ranges of the Alps rise to a greater altitude, and are completely separated from the neighbouring portions of the central chain, it is impossible not to distinguish them as distinct groups; but the outermost ranges, which rarely rise above the forest zone, are in all cases regarded as appendages of the adjoining groups. These outer ranges are called in German Voralpen, and in Italian Prealpi, and it is to be desired that equivalents should be introduced in other European languages. A complete catalogue of the peaks and passes of the Alps would exceed the limits of this article, but it seems desirable to append to each of the main groups in the following arrangement the names of the more conspicuous summits, with the height of each above the sea-level in English feet. No limit of absolute height has been fixed in selecting the peaks here enumerated, as the highest summits of the less lofty groups would appear insignificant in those whose average elevation is much greater. The more important passes are also enumerated, distinguishing those traversed — (1) by carriage road, (2) by bridle-path, practicable for beasts of burden, and (3) by footpath; and (4) snow passes, involving the necessity of crossing snow-fields or glacier Main Divisions of the Alps.
1. Maritime Alps.— On examining a map of the region where the chain of the Alps approaches the shores of the Mediterranean, it will be seen that, about 50 miles N.N.W. of Nice, and about 20 S.S.W. of the Monte Viso, several valleys diverge in various directions, disposed, roughly speaking, like the rays of a fan. These are formed by a number of ridges which converge towards, although they do not actually meet at, the Mont Enchastraye or Cima dei Quattro Vescovadi. On the west side one of these ridges divides the upper valley of the Ubaye from that of the Verdon, and sends out a branch which separates the latter from the Bléone. A third ridge divides the Verdon from the Var, and a fourth separates this from its main affluent, the Tinéa. As already mentioned, the range extending S.E. from Mont Enchastraye is regarded as the main chain of the Maritime Alps, and extends, with numerous diverging secondary ridges, in a curved line, gradually approaching nearer to the coast till it is merged in the chain of the Apennines. To fix the limit between the Alps and the Apennines in this direction is necessarily a somewhat arbitrary process, and different criteria may be applied with different results; but it seems most natural to fix on the depression west of Savona known as the Col d’Altare or Col di Cadibona, over which the road is carried which leads in one direction to Alessandria, and in the other to Mondovi. This is by far the lowest depression in the barrier dividing the Adriatic from the Mediterranean, the summit being only 1608 feet above the sealevel; and during the Miocene epoch it formed a strait connecting those seas. In modem times the project of utilising the same pass for the construction of a canal to connect the Po with the Gulf of Genoa is an illustration of its geographical significance. On the north side of the Mont Enchastraye, a comparatively low pass, Col de l’Argentiére, divides that mountain from the adjoining portion of the main chain. This might properly be regarded as the northern limit of the Maritime Alps, but ancient usage has included in that group the ranges that enclose the Val Maira, and separate it on one side from the Stura di Demonte, and on the other from the Vraita. Conforming to that practice, we fix the northern limit of the Maritime Alps at the Col de Longet, S.E. of the peak of Monte Viso, connecting the head of Val Vraita in Pied-mont with the sources of the Ubaye in France.
Chief Peaks of the Maritime Alps.
(The heights are given in English feet.) [table] [table]
2. Cottian Alps.— In the well-known panorama presented to an observer who takes his stand on the Superga, or some other eminence near Turin, the most distant objects are the peaks of the Maritime Alps south of Cuneo and, exactly in the opposite direction, the great mass of Monte Rosa. In the western horizon, subtended by this chord, about 120 miles in length, the eye follows the irregular curve traced out by the main peaks of the western Alps, that separate upper Italy from France. More than any other part of the Alpine chain, this is characterised by extreme irregularity in the disposition of the mountain masses and the chief valleys. On the west side the prevailing direction seems to be from south-west to north-east, while on the east side it is more nearly from west to east; but the valleys and the ridges that enclose them are often curved or irregularly sinuous. Convenience seems to confirm immemorial usage in subdividing this region into two or more groups; but it is not easy to decide how this is to be effected. The great valley of the Dora Riparia, and the low passes connecting it with the valley of the Durance, seem to afford the most natural division. Ancient and modern usage being alike opposed to this, it appears that the valley of the Orco in Piedmont and that of the Arc in Savoy, with the connecting pass of the Col del Carro, may best be taken as the boundary between the northern and southern portions. The latter is distinguished as the group of the Cottian Alps. This includes a number of secondary ridges that extend from the main chain on the side of Piedmont, with a general direction from west to east; and on the French side one considerable range, stretching southwest from the neighbourhood of Monte Viso, that divides the Ubaye from the Guil, besides a lesser parallel ridge lying between the Guil and the head waters of the Durance. [table] [table]
3. Dauphiné Alps.— On the west side of the Cottian Alps, and separated from these by the broad valley of the Durance, rises a group of lofty peaks, surpassing them considerably in height, and almost completely isolated from their neighbours. This group has not usually been included amongst the Cottian Alps by geographers, and it is more natural to regard it as the nucleus of a distinct division constituting the Dauphiné Alps. On the north side of this central mass, and separated by the valley of the Romanche and the Col de Lautaret, is a considerable group, including three principal ridges, whose direction is nearly due north and south, separated from the neighbouring mountains of Savoy by the deep valleys of the Arc and the Isère, which may best be regarded as an outlying portion of this division. On the south side of the main group another outlying mass, which on one side feeds the chief sources of the Drac, and on the other several short tributaries to the Durance, must also be included in this division. The ranges of secondary rocks lying west of the broad valley between Grenoble and Chambéry, which are geologically and orographically a southern extension of the chain of the Jura, are at the same time exactly parallel to the northern ranges of the Dauphiné Alps, and must be regarded as the outer range or “Border Alps” (Voralpen) of the group. The only doubt in fixing the limits of the Dauphiné Alps is as to the boundary between their northern group and the adjoining mass of the Cottian Alps. It seems that this may best be fixed at the Col de Galibier, connecting the chier source of the Durance with the valley of Valloires in Savoy. [table]
4. Graian Alps.— The lofty group of snowy mountains lying between the plain of Piedmont and Mont Blanc has from a remote period borne the designation Graian Alps. To the north they are bounded by the Val d’Aosta, and to the south by the valley of the Orco; but on the west side the boundary is not so easily determined. The portion of the main chain dividing Savoy from Piedmont, between the Levana and Mont Blanc, must undoubtedly be included in this division; but it is not so easy to determine the relations of a group of lofty summits that are divided from the rest of the Graian Alps by the upper valley of the Isère, filling the space between the upper course of that river and that of the Arc. This is further geologically distinguished by the fact that the higher summits are chiefly composed of nearly unaltered sedimentary rocks. This group has by some writers been associated with the mountains of Beaufort, lying between the Isère and the Arly, to form, with some subordinate branches, a group of south Savoy Alps; but we prefer to adhere to the older usage of those who have united them with the Graian Alps. The exact boundary between these and the Mont Blanc group may best be fixed at the pass of the Little St Bernard, the lowest in the main chain between the Mont Cenis and the Simplon. [table] [table]
5. Pennine Alps. — The portion of the great chain that includes the peaks of Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa has always been recognised as the most important among the divisions of the Alps. This pre-eminence is due not only to its surpassing height, but to the fact that its peaks are so conspicuous. Throughout the plain of Upper Italy, from Turin to Milan, and even as far as the slopes of the Apennines, Monte Rosa, with its attendant peaks, is commonly the most remarkable object in the northern horizon; while in western Switzerland, and as far westward as the heights above Lyons, the dome of Mont Blanc, rising in the distant eastern horizon, attracts the frequent attention alike of natives and strangers. Some doubts may arise as to the precise limits that should be assigned to this group. Towards the north-east it is generally agreed that the Simplon Pass is the most natural limit. In the opposite direction most writers have fixed on the Col de Bonhomme, south-west of Mont Blanc, as the proper boundary; but it seems reasonable in a general arrangement to regard the range extending from the last-named pass to Grand Coeur, in the valley of the Isère, as a south-western prolongation of the range of Mont Blanc. From the portion of the main chain connecting the Mont Combin with Monte Rosa, numerous branches, with peaks that rival these in height, diverge northward. The secondary ranges that extend on the side of Italy, southward and eastward from Monte Rosa, are much inferior in altitude. On the north and west sides of Mont Blanc an extensive mountain district, including the French department of Haute Savoie, must be considered as an appendage to the group of the Pennine Alps. On the south side, the short range extending parallel to that of Mont Blanc, from Courmayeur to the Val de Bellaval, corresponding to the range of the Aiguilles Rouges and the Brévent, on the opposite side, may best be included within the group of the Pennine Alps. [table] [table] [table]
6. Bernese Alps.— There is no considerable mass of Alpine summits whose boundaries are better defined than that which is generally known as the group of the Bernese Alps. By the number and height of the peaks, that rise far above the limits of perpetual snow, it ranks next in importance to the Pennine group; and its position with reference to that group has largely contributed to the fame of the region which they occupy for a marvellous and almost unique combination of grandeur and variety. The most characteristic feature in the orography of Switzerland is the great valley system that extends in a nearly direct line from Martigny to Coire—interrupted, it is true, by two passes (the Furka and Oberalp) of small elevation compared to the surrounding heights. On the opposite sides of this great trench the chief groups of the central Alps are arranged in masses that, amid much apparent irregularity, approach to parallelism with the direction of the central valley. Hence the traveller who attains any considerable height on either side sees over against him the dominant summits of the opposite group in constantly varying combination. The highest groups (the Pennine and Bernese) are so placed that the chief peaks on the one side are rarely more than 20 miles apart from their rivals in the opposite chain, and the projecting summits of the secondary ridges between them afford panoramic views of wonderful beauty and grandeur. What may be called the main chain of the Bernese Alps, forming the boundary between the Swiss cantons of Bern and Valais, extends parallel to the course of the Rhone, from the glacier which is the main source of that river, to Martigny, a distance of about 70 miles; and we must regard as a dependency of that chain the mountain district that lies on its northern side, between the upper course of the Aar and the head of the Lake of Geneva. Desiring to adhere to the divisions of the Alps admitted by ancient geographers, many modern writers have included the Bernese group among the Lepontine Alps; but this arrangement is not consistent with any rational criterion that can be applied. The only question admitting of doubt is as to the eastern limit of this group. The Aar issues from its parent glacier at a point very near to the chief source of the Rhone, and separated only by a comparatively deep and broad depression, the Grimsel Pass; and it might appear that the Bernese Alps should be defined as the group enclosed between those rivers. But some ten miles east of the Grimsel Pass the range lying north of the great valley of Switzerland is completely cut through by the valley of the Reuss, where that stream descends towards the Lake of Lucerne through the famous defile of the Devil’s Bridge; and as it would be inconvenient to reckon the comparatively small group that lies between the head waters of the Reuss and those of the Aar as a separate division, we prefer to include this as a portion of the Bernese Alps. [table]
[table]
7. North Swiss Alps.— Attention has already been called to the great line of valley that traverses Switzerland from Martigny to Coire. The range of high peaks lying on the north side of this valley is interrupted at one point only, where the Reuss flows through the deep defile of the Devil’s Bridge from Andermatt to Altdorf, and this breach in the continuity of the range has been here regarded as the eastern limit of the Bernese Alps. The range extending eastward from that boundary to the neighbourhood of Coire might perhaps be considered as a prolongation of the range of the Bernese Alps; but independently of the inconvenience of assigning such wide boundaries to a single group, there are geologic as well as orographic grounds for preferring to class this along with the dependent ranges lying further north as a separate division of the Alps. With regard to the latter ranges, those lying between the valley of the Reuss and the Lake of Lucerne, on one side, and the ancient valley of the Rhine, which included the lakes of Wallenstadt and Zurich, on the other, manifestly correspond to the outer ranges of central Switzerland, which we regard as appendages of the Bernese Alps. The case is somewhat different as regards the small detached group culminating in the Hoh Sentis, and lying in the angle between the ancient course of the Rhine and the modern Rhine valley from Sargans to the Lake of Constance. This is so far separated orographically and by geological structure that it might properly rank as a separate division, but it is on the whole more convenient to reckon it as an outlying portion of this group. The Oberalp Pass, a few miles east of Andermatt, forms the watershed between the Reuss and the main branch of the Rhine, and the waters meet again at the confluence with the latter of the united streams of the Aar and the Reuss at Waldshut, so that the entire territory comprehending this division of the Alps is enclosed between the two first-named rivers. [table] [table] [table]
8. Lepontine Alps.— The portion of the Alpine chain lying between the Simplon and Splügen passes, and forming the boundary between the tributaries of the Po and those of the Rhine, presents some peculiar orographic characteristics. The line of watershed is pretty nearly parallel to that great line of depression traced across Switzerland by the valley of the Rhone, the Urserenthal, and the valley of the Vorderrhein; and a tendency to parallelism with the same system may be traced in many parts of this group. But the dominant direction of the secondary valleys and ridges is that of the meridian; and on the south side we find a series of long valleys running from north to south, with occasional slight distortions. The most considerable of these are partly occupied by the two famous Lombard lakes—Maggiore and Como—which have from an early period attracted the admiration of strangers to this region. Ancient geographers limited the term Lepontine Alps to the portion of this group that sends its drainage on the south side to the river Ticino; but the ranges between the Splügen and Bernardino passes, and between the lakes Maggiore and Como, evidently belong to the same system, and must be united in any natural arrangement of the Alps. On considering a tolerably correct model, it is impossible not to be struck by the fact that all the valleys that contain the most considerable streams of the central Alps appear to radiate from the neighbourhood of the St Gotthard Pass. If we measure from the summit of that pass to the head valleys of the Rhone, the Aar, the Reuss, the Vorderrhein, the Ticino, and the Toccia, we find that the most distant lies within 9 English miles from that point. This fact has doubtless a significance which we are not yet able fully to appreciate, but scarcely suffices to justify the view of those who regard the St Gotthard Pass as in some special sense the central point of the whole system of the Alps. It is worth remarking that, so far from being distinguished by superior height, the neighbouring peaks are surpassed by all the surrounding groups, and that the valleys are much deeper than in many other districts, and especially than those of eastern Switzerland. [table] [table]
[table]
9. The Rhaetian Alps.— The older geographers included under the term Rhaetian Alps a vast mountain region extending over 6° of long., from the east side of the Lago Maggiore to the left bank of the Salza, and through 2½ o of lat., from the neighbourhood of Brescia to the plain of Bavaria. There is no assignable reason for uniting in a single division mountain groups so distinct as many of those included within this wide space—scarcely less than that occupied by all the divisions hitherto enumerated— save the fact that at an early period they received a common designation from writers who had a most imperfect acquaintance with their topography. It might be expedient to discard a term to which it is difficult to assign a limited meaning without incurring the risk of confusion; but general usage has so constantly applied the term Rhaetia to the mountain region of Switzerland lying east of the Rhine, with the adjoining portion of Tyrol, that it seems best to preserve the ancient name while endeavouring to restrict it within juster limits. With that object it is necessary to take account of one of the most remarkable features in the orography of the Alps—the great breach in the continuity of the main chain shown in the upper valley of the Adige. On a general view of western Tyrol it is apparent that the lakes which feed the head of that stream lie on the northern side of the axis of elevation of the main chain, and in fact several streams draining the northern slopes of the central mass are borne southward to the Adriatic through that opening. This is not the place to take into consideration the important influence that this breach in the line of defence between Italy and the north, and the equally deep opening of the Brenner Pass at the head of the other main branch of the Adige, has had on the history of Europe, nor to discuss the geological significance of the same depression throughout an incalculably longer period; but it is sufficiently clear that this should be taken as the eastern limit of the group to which the term Rhaetian Alps most properly apphes. On the west the limit, as we have already seen, is marked by the valley of the Rhine, and the line of depression over which the Splügen road is carried to the head of the lake of Como. In the space between these boundaries the chief mountains of the Rhaetian Alps appear as islands of crystalline rock, divided by intervening masses of palaeozoic and older secondary strata; but on the south side lies a district which differs considerably in geological structure, and is cut off by a distinct orographic boundary. A straight line drawn from the head of the lake of Como to Cles in Tyrol, will throughout lie close to a trench formed by the valley of the Adda, the low pass of Aprica, the head of Val Camonica, the Tonale Pass, and the Tyrolese Val di Sole. On the south side of this trench, and parallel to it, extend in succession a broad band of palaeozoic rock and a still broader zone of trias, bordered on the southern slope by a narrow girdle of jurassic rocks which decline towards the plain of Lombardy. Towards the east these are interrupted by a great mass of very peculiar granite, the most considerable tract of true granite to be found in the Alps. Beyond this the ridges and valleys no longer preserve the direction from east to west, but become parallel to the lake of Garda and the valley of the Adige. The district thus limited is enumerated hereafter as a distinct division under the designation Lombard Alps, the boundary between this and the Rhaetian division being the trench above described, which is prolonged from near Cles over the low Gampen Pass to the neighbourhood of Meran. On the northern side the Rhaetian Alps are divided from the Vindelician by a well-marked trench closely corresponding with the northern limit of the crystalline rocks of the Silvretta group, formed by the valley of the Ill, the Vorarlberg Pass, and the course of the Rosanna. Within the limits here assigned the Rhaetian Alps occupy an area measuring about 80 miles by 60. The entire mass is divided into two nearly equal portions by the upper valley of the Inn, known in Switzerland as the Engadine. [table] [table]
10. Lombard Alps.— The limits of the Lombard Alps have been already pointed out. They are enclosed on the east and west sides by the Adige and the lake of Como, extending through about 90 miles from near Meran to Lecco. Their northern boundary is the great orographic trough that stretches from the head of the lake of Como along the valley of the Adda to Tresenda, thence by the low Aprica Pass to the upper Val Camonica, and over the Tonale Pass to the Val di Sole. Where that valley bends abruptly to SSE., the trough still keeps its original direction across the Gampen Pass to the right bank of the Adige below Meran. In spite of the zeal with which travellers have of late years explored the unfrequented parts of the Alps, this group continues to be very imperfectly known, although it offers abundant attractions to the naturalist and the lover of picturesque and grand scenery. [table] [table]
11. Vindelician Alps.— Reference has already been made to the contrast offered by the orderly arrangement of the Eastern Alps, as compared with the far more complicated and irregular disposition of the masses that make up the Western and Central Alps. In the former we have a broad zone of crystalline or metamorphic palaeozoic rocks, extending from the upper valley of the Adige to the frontier of Hungary, flanked on either side by a parallel zone of secondary rocks, which rise into peaks that do not much exceed the limit of perpetual snow. The northern zone extends for a distance of fully 260 miles from the lake of Constance to the neighbourhood of Vienna, with an average width varying from 30 to 40 miles. For the greater part of that distance this is separated from the central range by broad and deep valleys, through which the Inn, Salza, and Enns flow from west to east, till each of them, turning abruptly northward, runs through an opening that cuts across the general strike of the stratification to reach the plain of South Germany. In geological structure and general aspect the mountains of this tract show many common characteristics, and convenience supplies the only good reason for dividing it into two main groups, separated by the valley of the Inn, the greatest of the tributaries which the Alps send to the Danube. Of the western portion of this region the larger part belongs to Bavaria, but a considerable share lies in the Austrian provinces of Tyrol and Vorarlberg; and on this account the designations Bavarian Alps and North Tyrol Alps are open to objection, and have the further disadvantage of excluding the Alpine districts of Bavaria and North Tyrol lying east of the Inn. The name Suabian Alps is liable to the serious objection that none but a very small part of this district was ever included in the circle of Suabia. On the whole, it seems that the region lying north of the Vorarlberg road and the valley of the Inn, between the lake of Constance and the latter river, may best be termed the Vindelician Alps. The whole was included within the territory of the Vindelici before that powerful tribe was conquered by the Romans, and their territory joined to that of the Rhaetians to form a single Roman province. In height the mountains of this division fall considerably short of those hitherto enumerated, not more than four or five exceeding 9000 feet. It is impossible to consider a map of this region without being struck by the fact, that although the general slope inclines northward towards the plain of Bavaria, or southward towards the Ill and the Inn, nearly all the ridges and minor valleys lie east and west parallel to the course of those rivers and to the outcrop of the sedimentary strata, which is equally the direction of the line of depression followed by the Vorarlberg road forming the southern boundary of this group. [table] [table]
12. Northern Noric Alps. —We have already spoken of the broad mountain zone extending from the Inn to the neighbourhood of Vienna, and bearing a general resemblance in orographic and geological character to the group last described. For reasons given hereafter, it seems impossible to preserve the ancient designation Noric Alps for any portion of the central chain of the Eastern Alps, but the name Northern Noric Alps seems the most suitable for a region which was altogether included in the Roman province of Noricum, and which closely coincides with the northern half of the Alpine district known to them as Alpes Noricoe. The boundaries of this division are easily determined. To the north and east the mountains subside towards the valley of the Danube. To the west it is bounded by the Inn, which bends first to north-east, then to north, to enter the plain of Bavaria. On the south side the boundary runs from the Inn through a part of the Zillerthal, over the low Gerlos Pass, and along the valleys of the Salza and the Enns, evidently forming a single line of depression; but where the Enns enters the defile of Gesaüse, a broad and low valley, through which runs the road from Rottenmann to Leoben, seems to form the most natural division between this and the central chain. The line of separation is completed by the valley of the Mur and the depression of the Semmering Pass, over which the railroad is carried to Vienna. The highest peaks of the Dachstein group form the most considerable prominence in the entire range of the Northern Alps; but the average height of the mountains of this division does not exceed that of the Vindelician Alps. [table]
[table]
13. Central Tyrol Alps.— To the eye of the geologist, taking a cursory view of the Eastern Alps, it may appear that the great central zone, extending from the upper valley of the Adige eastward to the neighbourhood of Gratz, forms but a single district of tolerably uniform structure. He will, however, remark that about the centre of the range the prevailing crystalline rocks—gneiss and mica-schist—give place to metamorphic schists, probably of palaeozoic age, that rise into several of the highest peaks of the entire mass. Those who are disposed to regard the above-named crystalline rocks as merely extreme forms of metamorphic sedimentary strata, may not attach much importance to this circumstance; but it is a still more significant fact that at a short distance east of the same extension of the metamorphic rocks we have proof of the former existence of a depression which seems to have cut completely through the central range. On the north side triassic rocks extend from the Enns to the upper valley of the Mur, and the presence of miocene deposits at several points in the latter valley, the Lieserthal and the Maltathal, seems to show that at a much later period this portion of the chain underwent great relative depression as compared with those on either side. Another and more obvious character that distinguishes the western from the eastern portion of the central zone, is the fact that in the latter the great range that extends like a vertebral column from the Weisskugel to the Hochalpenspitz forks into two branches of inferior height, that enclose between them the upper valley of the Mur. Ancient geographers divided the main mass of the Alps between the Bernardine Pass and the frontier of Hungary into two vast divisions, respectively called the Rhaetian and Noric Alps, placing the boundary between these at or about the Dreiherrnspitz, at the head of the Ahrenthal, and their example has been followed by some modern geographers. Nothing in the form or structure of the chain justifies the adoption of that arbitrary boundary between two main divisions of the Alps. We have already assigned reasons for fixing the western boundary of the Rhaetian Alps at the upper valley of the Adige, and we propose to retain the designation Central Tyrol Alps for the portion of the main chain extending thence to the head of the Malta Thal in Carinthia, nearly the whole of which lies within the limits of Tyrol. The exact boundaries of this division are, on the north, the course of the Inn from Landeck to the opening of the Zillerthal, the track thence over the Gerlos Pass to the head of the Pinzgau, and the valley of the Salza to the opening of the Gross Arl Thal; to the east, the way through the latter valley, over the Arlscharte, through the Malta Thal to Gmünd, and the road thence to Villach; on the south, the continuous trough extending from near the latter town to Mühlwald, on the Reinz, through the Gail Thal, the Lessach Thal, the head of the Drauthal and the upper valley of the Rienz. From Mühlwald the tortuous course of the Eisack forms the boundary as far as Botzen, whence the high road running N.W. along the Adige and though the Finstermünz completes the western boundary. Although the region thus limited does not present many prominent peaks, it is remarkable for the great average height of the main chain which forms the watershed between the affluents of the Danube on one side, and those of the Adige and the Drave on the other. In a distance of 120 miles—which would be much increased if measured along the sinuosities of the main chain—there is but a single low pass, that of the Brenner, none other being below 8000 feet in height, or suited for the construction of a carriage road. The Brenner is the lowest pass in the entire range of the Alps, and has from a remote period afforded the easiest access from middle Europe to the plains of northern Italy, but is properly described as a pass rather than as a breach in the continuity of the chain. [table] [table]
[table]
14∙. Styrian Alps.— The boundary between the central range of lofty peaks that extends through Tyrol and the adjacent province of Salzburg, and the much lower masses that spread eastward through Styria to the frontier of Hungary, has been already fixed at the Arlscharte. On the east side of that pass the mass whose conspicuous summits are the Markkahrspitz and the Hafnereck is divided into two parallel branches that enclose between them the upper valley of the Mur. The northernmost of these ranges is cut through by the broad and deep valley, traversed by the road that leads from Liesing on the Enns to Leoben, which we have regarded as the Ümit between the Northern Noric Alps and the central mass. The eastern boundary of this division, which we at the same time regard as the proper limit of the Alps, is marked by the river Mur, which, after flowing eastward for about 100 miles to Bruck-an-der-Mur, turns southward, and finally joins the Drave in Hungary. The eastern limit of the Alps is completed by the depression between Spielfeld and Marburg, over which is carried the railway from Vienna to Trieste. The southern boundary of the central range is unmistakably marked by the great valley of the Drave. The whole of this region was, along with large portions of the adjoining divisions, included under the term Noric Alps by ancient geographers; but as the retention of that designation can only lead to confusion, we readily adopt the name Styrian Alps, proposed by Karl V. Sonklar, whose writings have done so much to increase our knowledge of the Eastern Alps. It must, however, be remarked that the region above defined also includes a considerable district of Carinthia, along with a small part of the province of Salzburg, which extends to the head of the valley of the Mur. Excepting the comparatively high mass in which that river takes its source, the summits of this region do not attain nearly so great a height as those of the other main divisions of the Alps, and only two or three reach the limit of perpetual snow. [table] [table]
15. South Tyrol and Venetian Alps.— It has been seen that the mountain zone on the northern side of the main range of Tyrol extends from the lake of Constance to near Vienna, with a remarkable uniformity both of general aspect and of geological structure, so that no reason much more valid than convenience could be assigned for forming it into two separate divisions. The same remark does not hold good on the southern side of the main range. There is, indeed, a general similarity between the northern and southern zones, especially in their geological structure, so far as regards the sedimentary rocks; but in the western portion of the latter—in the region lying between the Adige and the sources of the Piave—the intrusion of igneous rocks on a large scale, and the accumulation of deposits formed from ejected volcanic matter, have profoundly modified the structure and outward aspect of the country. Nowhere else in the Alps do the peaks rise so abruptly and with so little apparent connection, and nowhere are the contrasts depending on differences of geological structure so marked as those which strike the mere passing traveller, when, beside rounded masses of red and black porphyry, he sees white and pink crystalline dolomite limestone rising in towers and pinnacles of extraordinary height and steepness. Dolomite limestone is found in many other parts of the Alps, but nowhere else is it developed on so grand a scale, and the exquisite beauty of this region has of late years led an increasing number of travellers to spots that before were scarcely known even to the inhabitants of adjoining valleys. Though there are abundant grounds for regarding the district here spoken of as a separate division of the Alps, it is very difficult to assign to it a satisfactory designation. The larger portion of the region has long been politically connected with Tyrol, and is partly inhabited by a Germanspeaking population, while the remainder has been politically connected with Venice, and the inhabitants are thoroughly Italian in language and manners. Were it not for a reluctance to introduce new and unfamiliar terms, the present division might be denominated Cimbric Alps, as, according to ancient tradition, the Cimbri, after their final defeat by Marius, sought and found a refuge in this part of the Alps; but for the present it seems best to designate as South Tyrol and Venetian Alps the region lying between the valley of the Adige and the sources of the Drave and the Piave, and south of the great valley traversed by the Eisack and the Rienz between Botzen and Innichen. The eastern limit may best be fixed by the track leading through the Sextenthal from Innichen to San Stefano in the head valley of the Piave, and by the road from that place to Conegliano. [table] [table]
16. South-Eastern Alps.— Ancient geographers, and those who have followed their example, use the terms Carnic Alps and Julian Alps to designate two of the main divisions of the Alps; but the latter of these at least hasbeen applied in a vague and inconsistent way. In point of fact, the south-eastern portion of the Alps, which includes both the groups above specified, presents three principal groups which are very closely connected together. The first of these—the Carnic Alps, properly so called—have been defined as including the region between the upper valley of the Drave and the plain of Friuli But to the orographer the true head of the Drave valley is the Gail-thal, which extends in an almost straight and broad trench from near Innichen to Villach, while the main stream flows through a sinuous and contracted valley. Foτ this reason we have taken the Gailthal as the boundary between the Central Tyrol and the Carnic Alps. Almost continuous with the Carnic Alps is a range, very similar in geological structure, which divides the Drave from the northern branch of the Save, and includes the mountains locally known as the Karawankas and the Sulzbacher Alps. Throughout these, which may be called the main range of the South-Eastern Alps, palaeozoic rocks, probably of carboniferous age, extend in a narrow band for a distance of fully 100 miles, giving place at the eastern extremity to the small granitic mass that forms the hills of the Bacher Gebirge near Marburg. On the south side of the main range of the Carnic Alps two mountain masses, mainly formed of triassic rocks and Dachstein limestone, attain a considerable height in the Monte Cavallo on the west, and the Monte Canin on the east side of Friuli. In a similar position as regards the Karawankas is a still loftier mass which is crowned by the Terglou—the highest peak of the South-Eastern Alps. This group is referred by geographers to the Julian Alps, which are said to divide the Save and its tributaries from the Adriatic. As has been already said, there is no range to which the term Alps can properly be applied forming such a boundary. The plateau of the Karst, though rising here and there into hills of moderate height, has an average elevation of about 2000 feet above the sea, and cannot correctly be spoken of as a mountain chain. The orographer, if seeking an eastern prolongation to the Terglou group, would prefer the hilly region between the Save and the southern Gurk; but the low country through which the railway is carried from Marburg to Laybach, and the road thence to Gorizia, may for all practical purposes be taken as the south-eastern limit of the Alps and of the division here described. [table] [table]
It is well known that as we rise from the sea-level into the upper regions of the atmosphere the temperature decreases. The effect of mountain chains on prevailing winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone, where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of heat, often accompanied by the precipitation of moisture in the form of snow or rain. The position of the Alps about the centre of the European continent has profoundly modified the climate of all the surrounding regions. The accumulation of vast masses of snow, which have gradually been converted into permanent glaciers, maintains a gradation of very different climates within the narrow space that intervenes between the foot of the mountains and their upper ridges; it cools the breezes that are wafted to the plains on either side, but its most important function is to regulate the water supply of that large region which is traversed by the streams of the Alps.. Nearly all the moisture that is precipitated during six or seven months is stored up in the form of snow, and gradually diffused in the course of the succeeding summer; and even in the hottest and driest seasons the reserves accumulated during a long preceding period of years in the form of glaciers are available to maintain the regular flow of the greater streams. Nor is this all; the lakes that fill several of the main valleys on the southern side of the Alps are somewhat above the level of the plains of Lombardy and Venetia, and afford an inexhaustible supply, which, from a remote period, has been used for that system of irrigation to which they owe their proverbial fertility. Six regions or zones, which are best distinguished by their characteristic vegetation, are found in the Alps. It has been a common error to suppose that these are indicated by absolute height above the sea-level. Local conditions of exposure to the sun, protection from cold winds, or the reverse, are of primary importance in determining the climate and the corresponding vegetation.
1. Olive Region.— The great plain of Upper Italy has a winter climate colder than that of the British Islands. The olive and the characteristic shrubs of the northern coasts of the Mediterranean do not thrive in the open air, but the former valuable tree ripens its fruit in sheltered places at the foot of the mountains, and penetrates along the deeper valleys and the shores of the Italian lakes. The evergreen oak is wild on the rocks about the lake of Garda; and lemons are cultivated on a large scale, with partial protection in winter. The olive has been known to survive severe cold when of short duration, but it cannot be cultivated with success where frosts are prolonged, or where the mean winter temperature falls below 42° Fahr.; and to produce fruit it requires a heat of at least 75° Fahr. during the day, continued through four or five months of the summer and autumn.
2. Vine Region.— The vine is far more tolerant of cold than the olive, but to produce tolerable wine it demands, at the season of ripening, a degree of heat not much less than that needed by the more delicate tree. These conditions are satisfied in the deeper valleys of the Alps, even in the interior of the chain, and up to a considerable height on slopes exposed to the sun. The protection afforded by winter snow enables the plant to resist severe and prolonged frosts, such as would be fatal in more exposed situations. Along with the vine, many wild plants characteristic of the warmer parts of middle Europe are seen to flourish. A mean summer temperature of at least 68° Fahr. is considered necessary to produce tolerable wine, but in ordinary seasons this is much exceeded in many of the great valleys of the Alps.
3. Mountain Region, or Region of Deciduous Trees.— Many writers take the growth of corn as the characteristic of this region; but so many varieties of all the common species are in cultivation, and these have such different climatal requirements, that they do not afford a satisfactory criterion. A more natural limit is afforded by the presence of the chief deciduous trees—oak, beech, ash, and sycamore. These do not reach exactly to the same elevation, nor are they often found growing together; but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the wild herbaceous vegetation. This limit usually lies about 4000 feet above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises to 5000 feet, sometimes even to 5500 feet. It must not be supposed that this region is always marked by the presence of the characteristic trees. The interference of man has in many districts almost extirpated them, and, excepting the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, a considerable wood of deciduous trees is scarcely anywhere to be found. In many districts where such woods once existed, their place has been occupied by the pine and Scotch fir, which suffer less from the ravages of goats, the worst enemies of tree vegetation. The mean annual temperature of this region differs little from that of the British islands; but the climatal conditions are widely different. Here snow usually lies for several months, till it gives place to a spring and summer considerably warmer than the average of our seasons.
4. Subalpine Region, or Region of Coniferous Trees.— This is the region which mainly determines the manner of life of the population of the Alps. On a rough estimate, we may reckon that, of the space lying between the summits of the Alps and the low country on either side, one quarter is available for cultivation, of which about one-half may be vineyards and corn-fields, and the remainder produces forage and grass. About another quarter is utterly barren, consisting of snow-fields, glaciers, bare rock, lakes, and the beds of streams; and there remains about one-half, which is divided between forest and pasture, and it is the produce of this which mainly supports the relatively large population. For nearly half the year the flocks and herds are fed on the upper pastures; but the true limit of the wealth of a district is the number of animals that can be supported during the long winter, and while one part of the population is engaged in tending the beasts and in making cheese and butter, the remainder is busy cutting hay and storing up winter food. The larger villages are mostly in the mountain region, but in many parts of the Alps the villages stand in the subalpine region at heights varying from 4000 to 5500 feet above the sea, more rarely extending to about 6000 feet. The most characteristic feature of this region is the prevalence of coniferous trees, which, where they have not been artificially reduced, form vast forests that cover a large part of the surface. These play a most important part in the natural economy of the country. They protect the valleys from destructive avalanches, and, retaining the superficial soil by their roots, they mitigate the destructive effects of heavy rains. In valleys where they have been rashly cut away, and the waters pour down the slopes unchecked, every tiny rivulet becomes a raging torrent, that cuts away and carries off the grassy slopes and devastates the floor of the valley, covering the soil with gravel and debris. In the pine forests of the Alps the prevailing species are the common spruce and the silver fir; on siliceous soil the larch flourishes, and surpasses every other European species in height. The Scotch fir is chiefly found at a lower level, and rarely forms forests. The Siberian fir is found scattered at intervals throughout the Alps, but is not common. The mughus, creeping pine, or Krummholz of the Germans, is common in the Eastern Alps, and sometimes forms on the higher mountains a distinct zone above the level of its congeners. In the Northern Alps the pine forests rarely surpass the limit of 6000 feet above the sea, but on the south side they commonly attain to 7000 feet; and the larch, Siberian fir, and mughus often extend above that elevation.
5. Alpine Region.— Throughout the German Alps the word alp is used specifically for the upper pastures, where cattle are fed in summer, but this region is held to include the whole space between the uppermost limit of trees and the first appearance of permanent masses of snow. It is here that the characteristic vegetation of the Alps is developed in its full beauty and variety. Shrubs are not wanting. Three species of rhododendron vie with each other in the brilliancy of their masses of red or pink flowers; the common juniper rises higher still, along with three species of bilberry; and several dwarf willows attain nearly to the utmost limit of vegetation. The upper limit of this region coincides with the so-called limit of perpetual snow, which demands further explanation.
6. Glacial Region.— On the higher parts of lofty mountains more snow falls in each year than is melted on the spot. A portion of this is carried away by the wind before it is consolidated; a larger portion accumulates in hollows and depressions of the surface, and is gradually converted into glacier-ice, which descends by a slow secular motion into the deeper valleys, where it goes to swell perennial streams. As on a mountain the snow does not lie in beds of uniform thickness, and some parts are more exposed to the sun and warm winds than others, we commonly find beds of snow alternating with exposed slopes covered with brilliant vegetation; and to the observer near at hand there is no appearance in the least corresponding to the term limit of perpetual snow. But the case is otherwise when a high mountain chain is viewed from a distance. Similar conditions are repeated at many different points, so that the level at which large snow-beds show themselves along its flanks is approximately horizontal. But this holds good only so far as the conditions are similar. On the opposite sides of the same chain the exposure to the sun or to warm winds may cause a wide difference in the level of permanent snow; but in some cases the increased fall of snow on the side exposed to moist winds may more than compensate the increased influence of the sun’s rays. Still, even with these reservations, the so-called line of perpetual snow is not fixed. The occurrence of favourable meteorological conditions during several successive seasons may and does increase the extent of the snow-fields, and lower the limit of seemingly permanent snow; while an opposite state of things may cause the limit to rise higher on the flanks of the mountains. From these remarks it may be inferred that all attempts to fix accurately the level of perpetual snow in the Alps are fallacious, and can at the best approach only to local accuracy for a particular district. In some parts of the Alps the limit may be set at about 8000 feet above the sea, while in others it cannot be placed much below 9500 feet. As very little snow can rest on rocks that lie at an angle exceeding 60°, and this is soon removed by the wind, some steep masses of rock remain bare even near the summits of the highest peaks, but as almost every spot offering the least hold for vegetation is covered with snow, few flowering plants are seen above 10,000 feet. There is reason to think, however, that it is the want of soil rather than climatal conditions that checks the upward extension of the Alpine flora. Increased direct effect of solar radiation compensates for the cold of the nights, and in the few spots where plants have been found in flower up to a height of 12,000 feet, nothing has indicated that the processes of vegetation were arrested by the severe cold which they must sometimes endure. The climate of the glacial region has often been compared to that of the polar regions, but they are widely different. Here, intense solar radiation by day, which raises the surface when dry, to a temperature approaching 80° Fahr., alternates with severe frost by night. There, a sun which never sets sends feeble rays that maintain a low equable temperature, rarely rising more than a few degrees above the freezing-point. Hence the upper region of the Alps sustains a far more varied and brilliant vegetation.
At the earliest period of which records are preserved the Alps appear to have been mainly inhabited by Celtic tribes some of which, before they were subjugated by the Romans, had made considerable progress in the knowledge of the useful arts. The Rhaetians and Vindelicians especially, in whom a primitive Turanian stock seems to have been amalgamated with a dominant Celtic race, readily assimilated the civilisation of Rome; and the language of the conqueror, modified by peculiarities of pronunciation and the retention of some native terms, still survives in Eastern Switzerland, and in a few isolated valleys of Tyrol. Throughout by far the larger part of the Alps, however, the flood of Teutonic invasion either exterminated or drove into exile the previous population. The Alemanni and other kindred tribes settled in the main valleys of the Eastern Alps, and finally became masters of the greater part of Switzerland, leaving to the original Celtic population the Western Alps and both slopes of the great Pennine chain. At a later period the invasion of Slavonic hordes threatened to substitute a new nationality throughout the same region, but after prolonged contests these tribes were restricted to its southeastern portion, being nearly confined to the upper valleys of the Drave and the Save, with their tributaries. The Italian valleys of the Alps, from the Val d’Ossola to the Tagliamento, inhabited by people of mixed race, have, with a few exceptions, preserved the language of Italy, much varied in the local dialects; while the western districts, in which the Celtic element remained predominant, have for the most part clung to the French tongue. The estimates formed of the present population of the Alps are uncertain, because they usually include towns and populous districts lying without the mountain region. It is usually reckoned that there are about 1,500,000 of Celto-Gallic stock in the French and Savoy Alps, western Switzerland, and some valleys of Piedmont; about 4,000,000 of Teutonic origin in the Swiss and German Alps; about 1,000,000 of Slavonic stock, chiefly Slovenes; and about 1,000,000 of Italians in the valleys of Northern Italy, the Swiss cantons of Tessin and Grisons, and in the Italian Tyrol, making an aggregate of 7,500,000. To these should be added about 70,000 people speaking some dialect of the Rhaeto-Roman or Romansch. All these numbers excepting the last are excessive, if we would restrict the estimate within the proper limits of the Alps.
Although no conspicuous species of quadruped or bird is known to be exclusively confined to the Alps, they have afforded an asylum to many animals that have become rare or extinct elsewhere. The great urus, the elk, and the wild swine have disappeared since the Roman period, and the beaver in more recent times; but the brown bear, the lynx, the wild cat, and the wolf still survive. Among Ruminants, the red deer, fallow deer, and roebuck, chiefly found in the lower forest region, are common to other mountain districts. More characteristic of the Alps is the chamois, which is found elsewhere only in the Carpathians, Pyrenees, and the mountains of European Turkey, and is the sole representative of the antelopes in this part of the world. Much rarer is the ibex or bouquetin, which still lives in the higher Alpine region of the Graian Alps, and possibly also in some recesses of the Pennine chain. Unlike the chamois, which descends at night to find sustenance as low as the verge of the pine forests, this fine animal remains, at least in the summer, in the upper region, on the verge of the snow-fields, or on the rocks that rise amidst the glaciers. The massive horns of the male are often a yard or more in length. Closely allied species are found in the Pyrenees and other mountain ranges of the Iberian peninsula, and in the Caucasus, but the true ibex seems to be now confined to this small corner of the Alps. The few endemic species of Mammalia found in the Alps are chiefly small Rodentia and Insectivora, which alone can multiply rapidly in the midst of a large and increasing human population. The marmot, which is the most characteristic of the Rodentia, maintains its ground in the stony recesses of the Alpine region, and does not diminish in numbers as most other wild animals have done. The most singular of this group is the snow-vole (Arυicola nivalis), whose nearest ally is a native of East Siberia. Several forms (varieties or sub-species) are found in various parts of the Alps. They ascend through the Alpine region to the rocks of the glacial zone, at least as far as 12,000 feet above the sea; and, unlike other animals framed to endure severe cold, they continue in activity throughout the long winter. There is at least one species of shrew (Sorex alpinus) peculiar to the Alps. The Cheiroptera are represented by numerous forms, which, with one exception (Vesperugo maurus), are not confined to this region; but the Alps form a limit to the distribution of many of this order: some species of middle Europe do not cross the main range, while several species of the Mediterranean region find their northern limit in the valleys on the southern side.
The Birds of the Alps are proportionately very numerous. Many southern species find a home in the warmer Italian valleys, and there meet northern forms that descend during the winter and spring, but return to the upper zone in the warm season. Of the more conspicuous species of the high Alps, the lämmergeyer (Gypaëtos barbatus) — once common, but now become very rare—is pre-eminent. It is also found in Algeria, in Syria, and in Northern Asia, but is one of those animals that is threatened with extinction by the progress of civilisation. The rock chough (Pyrrhocorax alpinus), distinguished by golden-yellow bill and feet, builds on rocks in the glacial region as high as 10,000 feet above the sea. Several song birds, such as the snow lark and snow finch, ascend to the limits of vegetation. The Gallinaceae are well represented. The cock of the woods (Tetrao urogallus), the grouse, ptarmigan, blackcock, gelinotte, and rock partridge (Caccabis saxatilis), are the most remarkable. The first, which is somewhat rare and extremely shy, surpasses the dimensions of an ordinary well-grown fowl.
Several Reptiles are found even in the upper region of the Alps, though none are very common. Of three venomous species of viper, Vipera berus ascends to about 8000 feet; and the black viper (V. prester) also reaches the Alpine region. V. Pedii is confined to the warmer Italian valleys. The snakes and lizards frequent the lower zones, excepting Lacerta pyrrhogastra, which is sometimes seen in the upper region.
Batrachians are more common than true reptiles. An Alpine frog attains the extreme limit of vegetation, and a toad ascends nearly as far. These have been considered by some as distinct species, by others as varieties of the common animals. At least one triton (T. Wurfbeinii) is peculiar to the Alps. The spotted salamander is common in the sub-Alpine region, but in the Eastern Alps it is replaced by S. atra, which is entirely black. This is sometimes found far above the limit of the pine forests.
The great lakes of the Alps are very rich in Fish, not only as regards the number of individuals, but in species also. Thus in the Chiemsee, at the northern foot of the Bavarian Alps, thirty-three species have been found, in the lake of Constance twenty-six species, and twenty-four in the lake of Lucerne. The most esteemed are those of the trout and salmon tribe, whose specific differences have not yet been fully investigated by ichthyologists. First in rank is the saibling (Salmo salvellinus), which flourishes in lakes between 2000 and 4000 feet above the sea, and occasionally extends to those of the Alpine region between 6000 and 7000 feet. The fish of the northern side of the Alps are fully described in Siebold’s Süsswasser-Fische Mitteleuropas. Those of the waters running to the Mediterranean have not been so fully investigated. Two or three peculiar species have been found in the lake of Geneva. In some of the Lombard lakes, the agone, a small fish of the herring tribe (Clupea finta), is a much esteemed article of diet.
In the classes hitherto noticed the number of species peculiar to the Alps is very small. This rule is reversed among the Invertebrata, especially as regards the Articulata and Mollusca. The number of insects is very great, and a considerable proportion extend to the limit of perpetual snow. Oswald Heer has pointed out several peculiarities in the insect fauna of the higher Alps. In ascending from the mountain region the proportion of the carnivorous tribes rapidly increases, and the families that feed on living vegetable matter either disappear or are much reduced in numbers. Beetles and other insects either lose their wings in the upper region, or are represented by allied wingless species. Along with the tendency to lose the power of flight, a diminution of brilliancy of colour appears, the prevailing hues being black or dingy grey. These peculiarities are to be explained by the fact that in the upper Alpine zone most insects live under stones, and the power of flight generally proves injurious to animals liable to be carried by the wind and upward air-currents over the snow-fields, whence they are unable to return. This is often seen to occur to butterflies and a few moths, which ascend as far as the highest flowering plants. The snow-fields and glaciers are not devoid of insect life. Several species of snow-flea have been detected; and further observation will probably bring to light other minute animals living in the pools that form on the surface of glaciers, or on the snow-beds, although their activity is often interrupted by the freezing of the surface.
The Arachnida are eminently characteristic of the fauna of the high Alps, where they abound both in species and individuals. Spiders ascend to the utmost limit of vegetation, and are even to be found on the bare rocks that rise out of the snow up to a height of 11,000 feet.
Although most of the orders of Articulata are represented in the Alps by numerous forms, these are far outnumbered by the total number of European species of that class; but among land and fresh water Mollusca the proportion is reversed, and as many as seven-eighths of all the species known in middle Europe, and a large proportion of those of the Mediterranean region, have been found in the Alps. Still more remarkable is the large proportion of endemic species. In the important group of the Heliceae fully one hundred species, or four-tenths of the whole number, are peculiar to the Alps. Between thirty and forty species only have been found in the Alpine zone, and of these but five— Vitrina diaphana, V. glacialis, Helix glacialis, H. foetens, and Vertigo Charpentieri— attain the upper limit of vegetation.
The Annulosa and Radiata of the Alps, so far as they are known, do not offer any points of special interest; and the study of the minute organisms, which have been proved to exist as high as 12,000 feet above the sea, is still in its infancy.
In describing the several regions which are found in ascending from the low country to the snow-clad summits of the Alps, and whose existence is due to climatal differences, it was necessary to refer to the characteristic vegetation of each zone, inasmuch as this affords the chief apparent distinction which climatal conditions impress on the earth’s surface. The most cursory observation suffices to show that within each of the zones thus broadly sketched out there exist marked differences in the vegetable population, so that a comparison of the local floras in two spots possessing a similar climate as regards temperature may exhibit but few points of agreement along with many marked contrasts. This partly depends on external conditions, of which the most important are differences in the amount and distribution of moisture in the air and the soil, and differences in the composition and state of aggregation of the soil itself. But a more important element in determining the flora of any particular district depends upon the causes which have operated throughout the whole period since it has become dry land to facilitate migration for certain species, and to impede it for others. The subject of the distribution of Alpine plants, so far as regards the eastern half of the chain, has been very well discussed in an essay by Dr A. Kerner in the 1st vol. of the 2d edit. of Schaubach’s Deutsche Alpen, although some of the conclusions of the writer may not bear careful criticism. He divides the natural floras of the Alps into four—named respectively Arctic, Baltic, Pontic, and Mediterranean, the term Baltic referring to the region that includes Germany, Southern Scandinavia, and North-Western Russia; while Pontic comprehends the region north and west of the Euxine —the northern provinces of Turkey and the whole space between the Carpathians and the Crimea. It does not appear that the writer holds that the plants existing in the Alps have actually migrated to their present homes from the geographical regions corresponding to the above denominations, but merely that they belong to the types of vegetation characteristic of each of them. It must be borne in mind that the Alps, and especially the mountain and sub-Alpine regions, produce a large number of peculiar forms, many of which have no near allies in the other mountain regions of Europe, while at the same time the differences are seldom so wide as to place these in distinct generic groups; and it seems quite inadmissible to suppose that the flora has been altogether formed by colonisation from surrounding districts. No space can be here found for details, but it may broadly be said that while the highest zone of all, lying close to the limit of permanent snow, exhibits throughout the whole chain an approach to uniformity, several of the most conspicuous species being common to this and to Arctic flora, the zone immediately below this, as well as those lower down, shows a large admixture of quite distinct elements. This is especially true of the southern slopes. In truth, but a very few of the well-marked endemic species of the Alps are confined to the north side of the main chain. A considerable number are common to both slopes, and a still larger proportion are restricted exclusively to the southern side. Of the larger groups which are represented in the Alps by numerous well-marked endemic species, the genera Alsine, Androsace, Arabis, Campanula, Crepis, Gentiana, Pedicularis, Primula, and Saxifraga may be especially noted. Without attempting to enter into details, it may be said that, along with a general Alpine flora, which extends throughout the entire chain, there are three large districts where, along with species common to all, we find a considerable number of others either absolutely local and endemic, or else representative in the Alps of the floras of other distant mountain groups. Only a few of the more remarkable species characteristic of each can be cited. The West Alpine Flora is found in Dauphiné, South Savoy, and Western Piedmont, as far north as the group of the Graian Alps. In the following list of the more remarkable species those which are either identical with or nearly allied to Pyrenean forms have an asterisk prefixed :—
Arabis pedemontana, Huguenina tanacetifolia, *Dianthus neglectus, Silene cordifolia, *Saponaria lutea, *Hypericum nummu-lariafolium, Astragalus alopecuroides, Saxifraga florulenta, S. diapensioides, *S. pedemontana, *Asperula hexaphylla, Cephalaria alpina, Achillea Herbarota, Berardia subacaulis, Campanula Allionii, C. elatines, Primula marginata, P. Allionii, *Erinus alpinus, Veronica Allionii, Thymus piperella, and Alopecurus Gerardi.
The Lombard Flora is marked by a considerable number of very distinct species that are limited to the southern declivity of the Alps, between the Lago Maggiore and the lake of Garda. Most of these are absolutely confined within these boundaries, but a few extend some distance east of the lake of Garda. The following deserve to be specified :—
Viola Comollia, V. heterophylla, Silene Elizabeth ae , Arenaria grineensis, Cytisus glabrescens, Sanguisorba dodecandra, Saxifraga Vandellii, S. arachnoidea, Lascrpitium nitidum, Telekia speciosissima, Leontodon tenuiflorus, Hieracium porrifolium, Campanula Raineri, C. elatinoides, Daphne rupestris, Euphorbia variabilis, and Carex baldensis.
The East Alpine Flora, extending through the region cast of the valley of the Adige, is characterised by a large number of peculiar species, and by a perhaps equal number of plants not seen elsewhere in the Alps, but also natives of the Carpathians, or of the region lying between Servia and the Adriatic. In the following list those included in the latter category are marked with an asterisk :—
Arabis vochinensis, *A. Scopoliana, *Cardamine trifolia, Braya alpina, Cochlearia brevicaulis, Silene pumilio, S. alpestris, Dianthus alpinus, *Genista sericea, Medicago Piron ae , *Potentilla Clusiana, Saxifraga Burseriana, S. tenella, *S. petraea, *S. hieracifolia, *Hacquetia Epipactis, Astrantia carniolica, Hladnikia golacensis, Anthemis alpina, Achillea Clusiana, * Senecio abrotanifolius, Centaurea alpina, C. rupestris, *Saussurea pygm ae a, Phyteuma comosum, Campanula pulla, *C. alpina, C. morettiana, C. Zoysii, Rhododendron chamoecistus, Gentiana imbricata, *G. frigida, G. Fröhlichii, * Primula minima, P. glutinosa, Androsace Hausmanni, Paederota Bonarota, P. Ageria, Wilfenia carinthiaca, Sesleria sph ae rocephala, and S. microcephala.
It is worthy of remark that the central and highest part of the Alpine chain, including the Pennine and Bernese groups, the Lepontine Alps, and those of North Switzerland, produce scarcely a well-marked species—with the doubtful exceptions of Rumex nivalis and of Potentilla grammopetala, which is confined to a small district south east of Monte Rosa—that does not spread throughout the rest of the chain.
The phenomena of glaciers have been chiefly studied in the Alps, but they are not especially characteristic of the mountains of central Europe. The investigation of their origin and structure, and the laws of their motion, fall within the province of the physical philosopher, and are discussed elsewhere. See Glaciers.
The geological structure of the Alps is a subject that has occupied the labours of many eminent men of science, especially during the last thirty years, yet it may be safely asserted that it will continue to offer new problems to the researches of at least another generation. There is scarcely a single difficult question regarding the nature and mode of deposition of the strata that make up the earth’s crust, the mode of elevation of mountain chains, the causes of the formation of valleys and lake basins, the action of meteoric forces, of rivers and ice-streams, that must not be decided before we can give a rational account of the structure of the Alps. Along with these, and scarcely less important, is the study of the various agencies involved in the phenomena of metamorphism, and that of the part played by volcanic action in some parts of the chain. The study of the organic remains embedded in the rocks is not so constantly the duty of the geologist in the Alps as it is in most other mountain districts; but of late years this has been actively pursued, and has tended to clear up many difficulties, while much room is left for further investigation. The reader is referred to the article Geology, and, with reference to detailed information as to the structure of the Alps, to the list of works on alpine geology given below.
The number of publications relating to the Alps has been so largely increased during the last quarter of a century that a bare catalogue would fill a considerable space. The majority of these are of a narrative and descriptive character, and do not add much to our knowledge of the Alps, either topographically or scientifically. It will suffice to give here a brief list of the chief works that may fairly be considered to have achieved that object. Works of exclusively scientific character, especially those relating to Alpine geology, are separately enumerated.
Scheuchzer (J. J.), Itinera Alpina, Leyden, 1723. Grüner, Die Eisgebirge des Schweizerlandes, Bern, 1760. Saussure (H. B. de), Voyages dans les Alpes, Neuchâtel, 1803-6. Hugi (J. J.), Natur-historische Alpenreise, Solothurn, 1830. Agassiz (L.), Etudes sur les Glaciers, Neuchâtel, 1840; Système Glacaire, ou Nouvelles Etudes, Ac., Paris, 1847. Forbes (J. D.), Travels through the Alps of Savoy, &c., Edinburgh, 1843. Desor (E.), Excursions et Séjours dans les Glaciers et les Hautes Régions des Alpes; 2 series, Neuchâtel, 1844-5. Saluzzo (A. di), Le Alpi che cingono l'Italia, l ma ∙ Parte, Torino, 1845. Schlagintweit (H. und A.), Untersuchungen über die Physicalische Geographie die Alpen; 2 series, Leipzig, 1850-4. Tyndall (J.), The Glaciers of the Alps, London, 1860. Berlepsch (H. A.), Die Alpen in Natur-und Lebensbildern dargestellt, Leipzig, 1861. Browne (Rev. G. F.), Ice-caves of France and Switzerland, London, 1865. Morell, Scientific Guide to Switzerland, London, 1866. Sonklar (Karl von), Die Oetzthaler Gebirgsgruppe, &c., Gotha, 1860; Die Gebirgsgruppe der Hohen Tauern, &c., Wien, 1866. Schaubach Die Deutsche Alpen; 2d edition, Jena, 1865-71. Bonney (Rev. T. G.), The Alpine Regions of Switzerland and the neighbouring countries, Cambridge and London, 1868. Ball (J.), The Alpine Guide; new edition, in ten parts, London, 1873. Considerable additions to our knowledge of the Alps are also to be found in the periodical publications of the English, Swiss, Austrian, Italian, and German Alpine Clubs; and also in papers that have appeared in Petermann’s Geographische Mittheilungen.
No general zoological works of a purely scientific character relating exclusively to the fauna of the Alps can be quoted; but much valuable information, conveyed in a popular form, will be found in Tschudi’s Thierleben der Alpenwelt, of which translations have appeared in English and French. The want of a compact work containing descriptions of all the plants of the Alps has been much felt by botanists. Those of Switzerland and the Eastern Alps are included in Koch’s Synopsis Florae Germanicae et Helveticae, a work of high authority, written in Latin; but it does not comprehend the species peculiar to Piedmont and the Western Alps. An illustrated work, by J. C. Weber, Die Alpenpflanzen Deutschlands und der Schweiz, may also be recommended. Of numerous books and memoirs connected with the geology of the Alps, the following deserve special mention L. von Buch, Geologische Beobachtungen auf Reisen, 1802. Sir R. I. Murchison, On the Geological Structure of the Alps, the Apennines, and the Carpathians, Quart. Journal Geol. Soc. of London, vol. v.; a translation of this important memoir into Italian, with an appendix, by P. Savi and G. Meneghini, Florence, 1851. Sedgwick and Murchison, On the Geology of the Eastern Alps, Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond. 1832. J. de Charpentier, Essai sur les Glaciers et sur le Terrain Erratique du Bassin du Rhone, 1841. B. Studer, Geologie der Schweiz, 1853; Id. Index der Petrographie und Stratigraphie der Schweiz, &c., Bern, 1872. A. Stoppani, Studii Geologichi e Paleontologichi sulla Lombardia, 1857. C. Lory, Description Géologique du Dauphiné, 1860. Gümbel, Geologie des Königreichs Bayern, 1861. O. Heer, Die Urwelt der Schweiz, Zürich, 1865. E. Desor, Der Gebirgsbau der Alpen, &c., Wiesbaden, 1865. A. Favre, Recherches Géologiques dans les Parties de la Savoie, &c.; Voisines du Mont Blanc, Genève, 1867. L. Rütimeyer, Ueber Thal-und Seebilding, Basel, 1869. A copious collection of facts and observations bearing on the physics and recent geology of the Alps will be found in a work by Μ. Dollfuss-Ausset, Matériaux pour l'Etude des Glaciers, of which nine volumes have appeared. Many important contributions to Alpine geology are scattered through the Proceedings of scientific societies. The Bulletin of the French Geological Society contains valuable papers by Collegno, Dausse, Gras, Huber, Mortillet, Omboni, Rozet, and others. The geology of the Austrian Alps is illustrated by numerous papers in the Jahrbuch der k. k. Reichsanstalt. The memoirs of A. Sismonda and B. Gastaldi, in the Memorie della R. Academia di Torino, must be consulted by those who would study the geology of Piedmont. The phenomena of the motion and structure of glaciers have been discussed in numerous·
papers that have appeared in the London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine during the last thirty years. The important memoirs of Professor Tyndall were published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1857, 1858, and 1859; and those of the late Mr Hopkins in the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. viii. Various contributions to illustrate and enforce the views first set forth by the late Principal Forbes in his Travels through the Alps were published in a collected form by Messrs Black, Edinburgh, in 1859.
With the exception of special maps of small districts, the only maps of the Alps founded on actual survey are those which have been published under the authority of the governments whose territory is concerned. Among these the first place is due to the federal map of Switzerland, executed under the direction of General Dufour, on the scale 1 / 100000 in 25 sheets. Considering the difficulty of the task, this is unsurpassed both for accuracy and skill in execution. The Austrian War Office has brought out, during the last sixty years, a series of maps, executed on a large scale, of the several states of the empire. These are of very unequal merit. That of the kingdom of Venetian Lombardy, in 42 sheets, on the scale of 1 / 86400 , has considerable merit, but falls short of the standard of the Swiss map. A new map of Tyrol is in preparation, and will doubtless sustain the reputation of Austrian cartographers. The general map of Piedmont, in 91 sheets, on the scale 1 / 50000 , is sufficiently correct as regards the inhabited districts, but quite unsatisfactory as regards the higher region. Until lately there existed no tolerable map of the Alpine provinces of France. The general map of France, on the scale 1 / 80000 has of late years been extended to the greater part of Dauphine, and will before long include the newly-acquired departments of Savoy and Nice. The portion already published is quite on a level with modern requirements, and reflects credit on the French war department. The only tolerable map that includes the entire chain of the Alps is that compiled by J. G. Mayr. It is on a small scale (1/450000), and is not free from serious errors. A map published by Wörl, in 48 sheets, on a scale 1 / 200000 , entitled “Atlas von Südwest Deutschland und dem Alpen-lande,” is very unsatisfactory. Scheda’s general map of the Austrian Empire and adjoining territories, in 20 sheets, is an excellent compilation. It includes the Alps as far west as Monte Posa and the lake of Thun, but the scale (1 / 576000 ) is inconveniently small.
Of geological maps including any considerable portion of the Alps the following deserve to be specified :—
Favre (A.), Carte Géologique des Parties de la Savoie, &c., Voisines du Mont Blanc. Gümbel, Geognostische Karte des Königreichs Bayern. Hauer (F. von), Geologische Uebersichtskarte der Oester-reichischen Monarchie; sheets 5 and 6 include the Austrian Alps. Lory (C.), Carte Géologique du Dauphiné. Morlot, Uebersichtskarte der Nordöstlichen Alpen. Sismonda (A.), Carta Geologica di Savoja, Piemonte, e Liguria. Société Géologique de France, Carte Géologique de la Savoie. Studer (B.) u. Escher v. d. Linth, Carte Géologique de la Suisse.
