Chronology

CHRONOLOGY

CHRONOLOGY (from the Greek χρονολογία, computation of time) is the science which treats of time. Its object is to arrange and exhibit the various events which have occurred in the history of the world in the order of their succession, and to ascertain the intervals of time between them.

The preservation of any record, however rude, of the lapse of time implies some knowledge of the celestial motions, by which alone time can be accurately measured, and some advancement in the arts of civilized life, which could only be attained by the accumulated experience of many generations. Before the invention of letters the memory of past transactions could not be preserved beyond a few years with any tolerable degree of accuracy. Events which greatly affected the physical condition of the human race, or were of a nature to make a deep impression on the minds of the rude inhabitants of the earth, might be vaguely transmitted through several ages by traditional narrative; but intervals of time, expressed by abstract numbers, and these constantly varying besides, would soon escape the memory. The invention of the art of writing afforded the means of substituting precise and permanent records for vague and evanescent tradition; but in the infancy of the world, mankind had learned neither to estimate accurately the duration of time, nor to refer passing events to any fixed epoch. Writing was practised many centuries before historians began to assign dates to the events they narrated. The masterpieces of Herodotus and Thucydides, while setting forth, each in the manner suited to the author’s aim, events in the order of their succession, are stories without dates.

For these reasons the history of the early ages of the world is involved in almost impenetrable obscurity, and chronology, comparatively speaking, is only of recent origin. After political relations began to be established, the necessity of preserving a register of passing seasons and years would soon be felt, and the practice of recording important transactions must have grown up as a necessary consequence of social life. But of these early records a very small portion only has escaped the ravages of time and barbarism.

The earliest written annals of the Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans are irretrievably lost. The traditions of the Druids perished with them. A Chinese emperor has the credit of burning “the books” extant in his day (about 220 b.c. ), and of burying alive the scholars who were acquainted with them. And a Spanish adventurer destroyed the picture records which were found in the pueblo of Montezuma.

Of the more formal historical writings in which the first ineffectual attempts were made in the direction of systematic chronology we have no knowledge at first-hand. Of Hellenicus, the Greek logographer, who appears to have lived through the greater part of the 5th century b.c., and who drew up a chronological list of the priestesses of Here at Argos; of Ephorus, who lived in the 4th century b.c., and is distinguished as the first Greek who attempted the composition of a universal history; and of Timaeus, who in the following century wrote an elaborate history of Sicily, in which he set the example of using the Olympiads as the basis of chronology, the works have perished, and our meagre knowledge of their contents is derived only from fragmentary citations in later writers. The same fate has befallen the works of Berosus and Manetho, Eratosthenes and Apollodorus. Berosus, a priest of Belus living at Babylon in the 3d century b.c., added to his historical account of Babylonia a chronological list of its kings, which he claimed to have compiled from genuine archives preserved in the temple. Manetho, likewise a priest, living at Sebennytus in Lower Egypt in the 3d century b.c., wrote in Greek a history of Egypt, with an account of its thirty dynasties of sovereigns, which he professed to have drawn from genuine archives in the keeping of the priests. Of these works fragments only, more or less copious and accurate, have been preserved. Eratosthenes, who in the latter half of the 2d century b.c. was keeper of the famous Alexandrian Library, not only made himself a great name by his important work on geography, but by his treatise entitled Chronographia, one of the first attempts to establish an exact scheme of general chronology, earned for himself the title of “father of chronology.” His method of procedure, however, was usually conjectural; and guess-work, however careful, acute, and plausible, is still guess-work and not testimony. Apollodorus, an Athenian who flourished in the middle of the 2d century b.c., wrote a metrical chronicle of events, ranging from the supposed period of the fall of Troy to his own day. These writers were followed by other investigators and systematizers in the same field, but their works are lost. Of the principal later writers whose works are extant, and to whom we owe what little knowledge we possess of the labours of their predecessors, mention will be made hereafter.

The absence or incompleteness of authentic records, however, is not the only source of obscurity and confusion in the chronology of remote ages. There can be no exact computation of time or placing of events without a fixed point or epoch from which the reckoning takes its start. It was long before this was apprehended. When it began to be seen, various epochs were selected by various writers; and at first each small separate community had its own epoch and method of time-reckoning. Thus in one city the reckoning was by succession of kings, in another by archons or annual magistrates, in a third by succession of priests. It seems now surprising that vague counting by generations should so long have prevailed and satisfied the wants of inquiring men, and that so simple, precise, and seemingly obvious a plan as counting by years, the largest natural division of time, did not occur to any investigator before Eratosthenes.

Precision, which was at first unattainable for want of an epoch, was afterwards no less unattainable from the multiplicity, and sometimes the variation, of epochs. But by a natural process the mischief was gradually and partially remedied. The extension of intercourse between the various small groups or societies of men, and still more their union in larger groups, made a common epoch necessary, and led to the adoption of such a starting point by each larger group. These leading epochs continued in use for many centuries. The task of the chronologer was thus simplified and reduced to a study and comparison of dates in a few leading systems.

The most important of these systems in what we call ancient times were the Babylonian, the Greek, and the Roman. The Jews had no general era, properly so called. In the history of Babylonia, the fixed point from which time was reckoned was the era of Nabonassar, 747 b.c. Among the Greeks the reckoning was by Olympiads, the point of departure being the year in which Coroebus was victor in the Olympic Games, 776 b.c. The Roman chronology started from the foundation of the city, the year of which, however, was variously given by different authors. The most generally adopted was that assigned by Varro, 753 b.c. It is noteworthy how nearly these three great epochs approach each other,—all lying near the middle of the 8th century b.c. But it is to be remembered that the beginning of an era and its adoption and use as such are not the same thing, nor are they necessarily synchronous. Of the three ancient eras above spoken of, the earliest is that of the Olympiads, next that of the foundation of Rome, and the latest the era of Nabonassar. But in order of adoption and actual usage the last is first. It is believed to have been in use from the year of its origin. It is not known when the Romans began to use their era. The Olympiads were not in current use till about the middle of the 3d century b.c., when Timaeus, as already mentioned, set the example of reckoning by them. Of these and other ancient and modern eras a full account is given in the following pages.

Even after the adoption in Europe of the Christian era, a great variety of methods of dating—national, provincial, and ecclesiastical—grew up and prevailed for a long time in different countries, thus renewing in modern times the difficulties experienced in ancient times from diversities of reckoning. An acquaintance with these various methods is indispensable to the student of the charters, chronicles, and legal instruments of the Middle Ages.

In reckoning years from any fixed epoch in constant succession, the number denoting the years is necessarily always on the increase. But rude nations and illiterate people seldom attach any definite idea to large numbers. Hence it has been a practice, very extensively followed, to employ cycles or periods, consisting of a moderate number of years, and to distinguish and reckon the years by their number in the cycle. The Chinese and other nations of Asia reckon, not only the years, but also the months and days, by cycles of sixty. The Saros of the Chaldeans, the Olympiad of the Greeks, and the Roman Indiction are instances of this mode of reckoning time. Several cycles were formerly known in Europe; but most of them were invented for the purpose of adjusting the solar and lunar divisions of time, and were rather employed in the regulation of the calendar than as chronological eras. They are frequently, however, of very great use in fixing dates that have been otherwise imperfectly expressed, and consequently form important elements of chronology.

Chronology has shared with history the fruits of the novel researches and remarkable discoveries in the field of antiquity which have especially distinguished the present century. The memorabilia of early peoples and ages were set down not only in written records but in monumental inscriptions. The latter, graven on stone or metal, could resist the touch of time and the hand of the barbarian better than the former; and although at various times terrible havoc has been made among them, immense numbers are in existence to this day. In Assyria, Egypt, Persia, Greece, and Italy, the practice of monumental inscription was very general. These inscriptions have attracted the attention of learned men from very remote ages. But as contributions to history and chronology, they have within the present century risen into new and surprising importance. By Grotefend’s decipherment of the cuneiform characters, the language of the Babylonian and Persian inscriptions, and by Young’s decipherment of hieroglyphics, the language of the Egyptian monuments, two discoveries made within a few years of each other, new fields of vast extent and unknown richness have been opened to historical explorers. These fields are now being diligently worked by some of the greatest living scholars; and from granite block and fragile papyrus roll results are already obtained of rare value and of rarer promise. The Assyrian inscribed cylinders, disinterred but thirty years ago, are yielding up the secrets of a long-buried past, enlarging the horizon of history, and even furnishing the means of giving a precise chronology to periods where all was vague. The publication of the Assyrian Canon by Sir Henry Rawlinson in 1862, verified as it was by the subsequent discovery of a record of a solar eclipse, must mark an epoch in chronological science. Egyptian researches and interpretations have been of similar service, and have strongly tended, if not to establish the complete accuracy, at least to indicate the credibility, of Manetho’s account of the Egyptian dynasties. The period through which these dynasties apparently reached was so vast, stretching so far beyond the traditionally accepted limits of man’s existence on the earth, that modern chronologers, when they grew critical, could for a long time only shake their heads in profound doubt over Manetho and his vistas of shadowy kings. For Egyptian chronology the discovery by Mariette, in 1864, of the Apis Steloe is one of the highest importance. A flood of light has been poured on some obscure pages of early Persian history by the great cuneiform inscription of Behistun, discovered in 1835 by Colonel Rawlinson, who subsequently copied and translated it,

In the article Calendar (q.v.), that part of chronology has been already treated of which relates to the measurement of time, and the principal methods explained with sufficient detail that have been employed, or are still in use, for adjusting the lunar months of the solar year, as well as the intercalations necessary for regulating the civil year according to the celestial motions. In the present article it is our purpose to give an account (without repeating what has been discussed in full in the article just named) of the different Eras and Periods that have been employed by historians, and by the different nations of the world, in recording the succession of time and events, to fix the epochs at which the eras respectively commenced, to ascertain the form and the initial day of the year made use of, and to establish their correspondence with the years of the Christian era. These elements will enable us. to convert, by a simple arithmetical operation, any historical date, of which the chronological characters are given according to any era whatever, into the corresponding date in our common are of the Incarnation.

Julian Period.

Although the Julian Period (the invention of Joseph Scaliger, in 1582) is not, properly speaking, a chronological era, yet, on account of its affording considerable facilities in the comparison of different eras with one another, and in marking without ambiguity the years before Christ, it is very generally employed by chronologers. It consists of 7980 Julian years; and the first year of the Christian era corresponded with the year 4714 of the Julian period. (See vol. iv. p. 670.)

Olympiads.

The Olympic games, so famous in Greek history, were celebrated once every four years, between the new and full moon first following the summer solstice, on the small plain named Olympia in Elis, which was bounded on one side by the River Alpheus, on another by the small tributary stream the Cladeus, and on the other two sides by mountains. The games lasted five days. Their origin, lost in the dimness of remote antiquity, was invested by priestly legends with a sacred character. They were said to have been instituted by the Idaean Heracles, to commemorate his victory over his four brothers in a foot race. According to a tradition, possibly more authentic, they were re-established by Iphitus, king of Elis, in concert with the Spartan Lycurgus and Cleosthenes of Pisa. The practice was long afterwards adopted of designating the Olympiad, or period of four years, by the name of the victor in the contests of the stadium, and of inscribing his name in the gymnasium of Olympia. The first who received this honour was Coroebus. The games in which Coroebus was victor, and which form the principal epoch of Greek; history, were celebrated about the time of the summer solstice 776 years before the common era of the Incarnation, in the 3938th year of the Julian period, and twenty-three years, according to the account of Varro, before the foundation of Rome.

Before the introduction of the Metonic cycle, the Olympic year began sometimes with the full moon which followed, at other times with that which preceded the summer solstice, because the year sometimes contained 384 days instead of 354. But subsequently to its adoption, the year always commenced with the eleventh day of the moon which followed the solstice. In order to avoid troublesome computations, which it would be necessary to recommence for every year, and of which the results differ only by a few days, chronologers generally regard the 1st of July as the commencement of the Olympic year. Some authors, however, among whom are Eusebius, Jerome, and the historian Socrates, place its commencement at the 1st of September; these, however, appear to have confounded the Olympic year with the civil year of the Greeks, or the era of the Seleucidae.

It is material to observe, that as the Olympic years and periods begin with the 1st of July, the first six months of a year of our era correspond to one Olympic year, and the last six months to another. Thus, when it is said that the first year of the Incarnation corresponds to the first of the 195th Olympiad, we are to understand that it is only with respect to the last six months of that year that the correspondence takes place. The first six months belonged to the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad. In referring dates expressed by Olympiads to our era, or the contrary, we must therefore distinguish two cases.

1st, When the event in question happened between the 1st of January and the 1st of the following July, the.sum of the Olympic year and of the year before Christ is always equal to 776. The year of the era, therefore, will be found by subtracting the number of the Olympic year from 776.

For example, Varro refers the foundation of Rome to the 21st of April of the third year of the sixth Olympiad, and it is required to find the year before our era. Since five Olympic periods have elapsed, the third year of the sixth Olympiad is 5x4 + 3 = 23; therefore, subtracting 23 from 776, we have 753, which is the year before Christ to which the foundation of Rome is referred by Varro.

2c?, When the event took place between the summer solstice and the 1st of January following, the sum of the Olympic year and of the year before Christ is equal to 777. The difference therefore between 777 and the year in one of the dates will give the year in the other date. Thus, the moon was eclipsed on the 27th of August, a little before midnight, in the year 413 before our era; and it is required to find the corresponding year in the Olympic era. Subtract 413 from 777, the remainder is 364; and 364 divided by four gives 91 without a remainder; consequently the eclipse happened in the fourth year of the ninety-first Olympiad, which is the date to which it is referred by Thucydides.

If the year is after Christ, and the event took place in one of the first six months of the Olympic year, that is to say, between July and January, we must subtract 776 from the number of the Olympic year to find the corresponding year of our era; but if it took place in one of the last six months of the Olympic year, or between January and July, we must deduct 777. The computation by Olympiads seldom occurs in historical records after the middle of the 5th century of our era.

The names of the months were different in the different Grecian states. The Attic months, of which we possess the most certain knowledge, were named as follows :— [table]

Era of the Foundation of Rome.

After the Olympiads, the era most frequently met with in ancient history is that of the foundation of Rome, which is the chronological epoch adopted by all the Roman historians. There are various opinions respecting the year of the foundation of Rome.

lsζ Fabius Pictor places this event in the latter half of the first year of the eighth Olympiad, which corresponds with the 3967th of the Julian period, and with the year 747 B.c.

2c?, Polybius places it in the second year of the seventh Olympiad, corresponding with 3964 of the Julian period, and 750 B.c.

3d, Μ. Porcius Cato places it in the first year of the seventh Olympiad, that is, in 3963 of the Julian period, and 751 b.c. 4íä, Verrius Flaccus places it in the fourth year of the sixth Olympiad, that is, in the year 3962 of the Julian period, and 752 bc. bth i Terentius Varro places it in the third year of the sixth Olympiad, that is, in the year 3961 of the Julian period, and 753 b.c.

A knowledge of these different computations is necessary, in order to reconcile the Roman historians with one another, and even any one writer with himself. Livy in general adheres to the epoch of Cato, though he sometimes follows that of Fabius Pictor. Cicero follows the account of Varro, which is also in general adopted by Pliny. Dionysius of Halicarnassus follows Cato. Modern chronologers for the most part adopt the account of Varro, which is supported by a passage in Censorinus, where it is stated that the 991st year of Rome commenced with the festival of the Palilia, in the consulship of Ulpius and Pontianus.

Now this consulship corresponded with the 238th year of our era; therefore, deducting 238 from 991, we have 753 to denote the year before Christ. The Palilia commenced on the 21st of April; and all the accounts agree in regarding that day as the epoch of the foundation of Rome.

The Romans employed two sorts of years, the civil year, which was used in the transaction of public and private affairs, and the consular year, according to which the annals of their history have been composed. The civil year commenced with the calends of January, but this did not hold a fixed place in the solar year till the time of Julius Caesar (see vol. iv. p. 666.) The installation of the consuls regu lated the commencement of the consular year. The initial day of the consulate was never fixed, at least before the 7th century of Rome, but varied with the different accidents which in times of political commotion so frequently occurred to accelerate or retard the elections. Hence it happens that a consular year, generally speaking, comprehends a part not only of two Julian years, but also of two civil years. The consulate is the date employed by the Latin historians generally, and by many of the Greeks, down to the 6th century of our era.

In the era of Rome the commencement of the year is placed at the 21st of April; an event therefore which happened in the months of January, February, March, or during the first twenty days of April, in the year (for example) 500 of Rome, belongs to the civil year 501. Before the time of the Decemvirs, however, February was the last month of the year. Many authors confound the year of Rome with the civil year, supposing them both to begin on the 1st of January. Others again confound both the year of Rome and the civil year with the Julian year, which in fact became the civil year after the regulation of the calendar by Julius Caesar. Through a like want of attention, many writers also, particularly among the moderns, have confounded the Julian and Olympic years, by making an entire Julian year correspond to an entire Olympic year, as if both had commenced at the same epoch. Much attention to these particulars is required in the comparison of ancient dates.

The Christian Era.

The Christian or vulgar era, called also the era of the Incarnation, is now almost universally employed in Christian countries, and is even used by some Eastern nations. Its epoch or commencement is the 1st of January in the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753d from the foundation of Rome, and the 4714th of the Julian period. It is usually supposed to begin with the year of the birth of Christ, but there are various opinions with regard to the year in which that event took place. This epoch was introduced in Italy in the 6th century, by Dionysius the Little, a Roman abbot, and began to be used in Gaul in the 8th, though it was not generally followed in that country till a century later. From extant charters it is known to have been in use in England before the close of the 8th century. Before its adoption the usual practice in Latin countries was to distinguish the years by their number in the cycle of Indiction.

In the Christian era the years are simply distinguished by the cardinal numbers; those before Christ being marked b.c. (Before Christ), or a.c. (Ante Christum), and those after Christ A.r>. (Anno Domini). This method of reckoning time is more convenient than those which employ cycles or periods of any length whatever; but it still fails to satisfy in the simplest manner possible all the conditions that are necessary for registering the succession of events. For, since the commencement of the era is placed at an intermediate period of history, we are compelled to resort to a double manner of reckoning, backward as well as forward. Some ambiguity is also occasioned by the want of uniformity in the method of numbering the preceding years. Astronomers denote the year which preceded the first of our era by 0, and the year previous to that by 1 b.c. ; but chronologers, in conformity with common notions, call the year preceding the era 1 b,c., the previous year 2 b.c., and so on. By reckoning in this manner, there is an interruption in the regular succession of the numbers; and in the years preceding the era, the leap years, instead of falling on the fourth, eighth, twelfth, &c., fall, or ought to fall, on the first, fifth, ninth, &c.

In the chronicles of the Middle Ages much uncertainty frequently arises respecting dates on account of the different epochs assumed for the commencement of the Christian year. Dionysius, the author of the era, adopted the day of the Annunciation, or the 25th of March, which preceded the birth of Christ by nine months, as the commencement of the first year of the era. This epoch therefore precedes that of the vulgar era by nine months and seven days. This manner of dating was followed in some of the Italian states, and continued to be used at Pisa even down to the year 1745. It was also adopted in some of the Papal bulls; and there are proofs of its having been employed in France about the middle of the 11th century. Some chroniclers, who adhere to the day of the Annunciation as the commencement of the year, reckon from the 25th of March following our epoch, as the Florentines in the 10th century. Gregory of Tours, and some writers of the 6th and 7th centuries, make the year commence sometimes with the 1st of March, and sometimes with the 1st of January. In France, under the third race of kings, it was usual to begin the year with Easter; and this practice continued at least till the middle of the 16th century, for an edict was issued by Charles IX. in the month of January 1663, ordaining that the commencement of the year should thenceforth be considered as taking place on the 1st of January. An instance is given, in PArt de Verifier les Dates, of a date in which the year is reckoned from the 18th of March; but it is probable that this refers to the astronomical year, and that the 18th of March was taken for the day of the vernal equinox. In Germany, about the 11th century, it was usual to commence the year at Christmas; and this practice also prevailed at Milan, Rome, and other Italian cities, in the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries.

In England, the practice of placing the beginning of the year at Christmas was introduced in the 7th century, and traces of it are found even in the 13th. Gervase of Canterbury, who lived in the 13th century, mentions that almost all writers of his country agreed in regarding Christmas day as the first of the year, because it forms, as it were, the term at which the sun finishes and recommences his annual course. In the 12th century, however, the custom of beginning the civil year with the day of the Annunciation, or the 25th of March, began to prevail, and continued to be generally followed from that time till the reformation of the calendar in 1752. The historical year has always been reckoned by English authors to begin with the 1st of January. The liturgie year of the Church of England commences with the first Sunday of Advent.

A knowledge of the different epochs which have been chosen for the commencement of the year in different countries is indispensably necessary to the right interpretation of ancient chronicles, charters, and other documents in which the dates often appear contradictory. We may cite an example or two. It is well known that Charles the Great was crowned emperor at Rome on Christmas day in the year 800, and that he died in the year 814, according to our present manner of reckoning. But in the annals of Metz and Moissac, the coronation is stated to have taken place in the year 801, and his death in 813. In the first case the annalist supposes the year to begin with Christmas, and accordingly reckons the 25th of December and all the following days of that month to belong to 801, whereas in the common reckoning they would be referred to the year 800. In the second case the year has been supposed to begin with the 25th of March, or perhaps with Easter; consequently the first three months of the year 814, reckoning from the 1st of January, would be referred to the end of the year 813. The English Revolution is popularly called the Revolution of 1688. Had the year then begun, as it now does, with the 1st of January, it would have been the revolution of 1689, William and Mary being received as king and queen in February in the year 1689; but at that time the year was considered in England as beginning on the 25th of March. Another circumstance to which it is often necessary to pay attention in the comparison of dates, is the alteration of style which took place on the adoption of the Gregorian Calendar (see vol. iv. pp. 671 sqq.) Era of the Creation of the World.

As the Greek and Roman methods of computing time were connected with certain pagan rites and observances, which the Christians held in abhorrence, the latter began at an early period to imitate the Jews in reckoning their years from the supposed period of the creation of the world. The chronological elements on which both Jews and Christians founded their computations for determining this period were derived from the Old Testament narratives, which have been transmitted to us through three distinct channels. These are the Hebrew text of the Scriptures, the Samaritan text, and the Greek version known as the Septuagint. In respect of chronology, the three accounts are totally irreconcilable with each other; and no conclusive reason can be given for preferring any one of them to another. We have no concurrent testimony with which to compare them; nor is it even known which of them was regarded as the most probable by the Jews themselves, when the books of the Old Testament, were revised and transcribed by Ezra. The ordinary rules of probability cannot be applied to a state of things in which the duration of human life is represented as extending to nearly a thousand years.

From computations founded on loose and conflicting data it would be vain to look for knowledge or even for concord of opinion. From the very nature of the case discussion is hopeless labour. The subject is one to which the saying Quot homines tot sententioe applies with almost literal truth. Des Vignoles, in the preface to his Chronology of Sacred History, asserts that he collected upwards of two hundred different calculations, the shortest of which reckons only 3483 years between the creation of the world and the commencement of the vulgar era, and the longest 6984. The difference amounts to thirty-five centuries. It suffices, therefore, to point out that the so-called era of the creation of the world is a purely conventional and arbitrary epoch; that, practically, it means the year 4004 B.c.,— this being the date which, under the sanction of Archbishop Ussher’s opinion, has won its way, among its hundreds of competitors, into most general acceptance. The reader who is desirous of more detailed information on this subject may consult the first volume of the Universal History, or L ’ Art de Verifier les Dates, avant J. C., p. 9.

Jewish Year and Eras.

Before the departure of the Israelites from Egypt their year commenced at the autumnal equinox; but in order to solemnize the memory of their deliverance, the month of Nisan or Abib, in which that event took place, and which falls about the time of the vernal equinox, was afterwards regarded as the beginning of the ecclesiastical or legal year. In civil affairs, and in the regulation of the jubilees and sabbatical years, the Jews still adhere to the ancient year, which begins with the month Tisri, about the time of the autumnal equinox. (On the regulation of the J ewish year, see vol. iv. p. 677.)

After their dispersion, the Jews were constrained to have recourse to the astronomical rules and cycles of the more enlightened heathen, in order that their religious festivals might be observed on the same days in all the countries through which they were scattered. For this purpose they adopted a cycle of eighty-four years, which is mentioned by several of the ancient fathers of the church, and which the early Christians borrowed from them for the regùlation of Easter. This cycle seems to be neither more nor less than the Calippic period of seventy-six years, with the addition of a Greek octaeteris, in order to disguise its true source, and give it an appearance of originality. In fact, the period of Calippus containing 27,759 days, and the octaeteris 2922 days (see vol. iv. p. 688), the sum, which is 30,681, is exactly the number of days in eighty-four Julian years. But the addition was very far from being an improvement on the work of Calippus; for instead of a difference of only five hours and fifty-three minutes between the places of the sun and moon, which was the whole error of the Calippic period, this difference, in the period of eighty-four years, amounted to one day, six hours, and forty-one minutes. Buccherius places the commencement of this cycle in the year 162 B.c.; Prideaux in the year 291 b.c. According to the account of Prideaux, the fifth cycle must have commenced in the year 46 of our era; and it was in this year, according to St Prosperus, that the Christians began to employ the Jewish cycle of eighty-four years, which they followed, though not uniformly, for the regulation of Easter, till the time of the Council of Nice.

Soon after the Nicene council, the Jews, in imitation of the Christians, abandoned the cycle of eighty-four years, and adopted that of Meton, by which their lunisolar year is regulated at the present day. This improvement was first proposed by Rabbi Samuel, rector of the Jewish school of Sora in Mesopotamia, and was finally accomplished in the year 360 of our era by Rabbi Hillel, who introduced that form of the year which the Jews at present follow, and which, they say, is to endure till the coming of the Messiah.

Till the 15th century the Jews usually followed the era of the Seleucidae or of Contracts. Since that time they have generally employed a mundane era, and dated from the creation of the world, which, according to their computation, took place 3760 years and about three months before the commencement of our era. No rule can be given for determining with certainty the day on which any given Jewish year begins, without entering into the minutiae of their irregular and complicated calendar. A table comprising twelve cycles of Jewish years will be found at pp. 678, 679 of vol. iv.

Era of Constantinople.

This era, which is still used in the Greek Church, and was followed by the Russians till the time of Peter the Great, dates from the creation of the world. The Incarnation falls in the year 5509, and corresponds, as in our era, with the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad. The civil year commences with the 1st of September; the ecclesiastical year sometimes with the 21st of March, sometimes with the 1st of April. It is not certain whether the year was considered at Constantinople as beginning with September before the separation of the Eastern and Western empires.

At the commencement of our era there had elapsed 5508 years and four months of the era of Constantinople. Hence the first eight months of the Christian year 1 coincide with the Constantinopo]itan year 5509, while the last four months belong to the year 5510. In order, therefore, to find the year of Christ corresponding to any given year in the era of Constantinople, we have the following rule :— If the event took place between the 1st of January and the end of August, subtract 5508 from the given year; but if it happened between the 1st of September and the end of the year, subtract 5509.

Era of Alexandria.

The chronological computation of Julius Africanus was adopted by the Christians of Alexandria, who accordingly reckoned 5500 years from the creation of Adam to the birth of Christ. But in reducing Alexandrian dates to the common era, it must be observed that Julius Africanus placed the epoch of the Incarnation three years earlier than it is placed in the usual reckoning, so that the initial day of the Christian era fell in the year 5503 of the Alexandrian era. This correspondence, however, continued only from the introduction of the era till the accession of Diocletian, when an alteration was made by dropping ten years in the Alexandrian account. Diocletian ascended the imperial throne in the year of Christ 284. According to the Alexandrian computation, this was the year 5787 of the world, and 287 of the Incarnation; but on this occasion ten years were omitted, and that year was thenceforth called the year 5777 of the world, and 277 of the Incarnation. There are, consequently, two distinct eras of Alexandria, the one being used before and the other after the accession of Diocletian. It is not known for what reason the alteration was made; but it is conjectured that it was for the purpose of causing a new revolution of the cycle of nineteen years (which was introduced into the ecclesiastical computation about this time by Anatolius, bishop of Hierapolis) to commence with the first year of the reign of Diocletian. In fact, 5777 being divided by 19 leaves 1 for the year of the cycle. The Alexandrian era continued to be followed by the Copts in the 15th century, and is said to be still used in Abyssinia.

Dates expressed according to this era are reduced to the common era by subtracting 5502, up to the Alexandrian year 5786 inclusive, and after that year by subtracting 5492; but if the date belongs to one of the four last months of the Christian year, we must subtract 5503 till the year 5786, and 5493 after that year.

Mundane Era of Antioch.

The chronological reckoning of Julius Africanus formed also the basis of the era of Antioch, which was adopted by the Christians of Syria, at the instance of Panodorus, an Egyptian monk, who flourished about the beginning of the 4th century. Panodorus struck off ten years from the account of Julius Africanus with regard to the years of the world, and he placed the Incarnation three years later, referring it to the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, as in the common era. Hence the era of Antioch differed from the original era of Alexandria by ten years; but after the alteration of the latter at the accession of Diocletian, the two eras coincided. In reckoning from the Incarnation, however, there is a difference of seven years, that epoch being placed, in the reformed era of Alexandria, seven years later than in the mundane era of Antioch or in the Christian era.

As the Syrian year began in autumn, the year of Christ corresponding to any year in the mundane era of Antioch is found by subtracting 5492 or 5493 according as the event falls between January and September or from September to January.

Era of Naboìiassar.

This era is famous in astronomy, having been generally followed by Hipparchus and Ptolemy. It is believed to have been in use from the very time of its origin; for the observations of eclipses which were collected in Chaldea by Callisthenes, the general of Alexander, and transmitted by him to Aristotle, were for the greater part referred to the commencement of the reign of Nabonassar, founder of the kingdom of the Babylonians. It is the basis of the famous Canon of Kings, also called Mathematical Canon, preserved to us in the works of Ptolemy, which, before the recent astonishing discoveries at Nineveh, was the sole authentic monument of Assyrian and Babylonian history known to us. The epoch from which it is reckoned is precisely determined by numerous celestial phenomena recorded by Ptolemy, and corresponds to Wednesday at mid-day, the 26th of February of the year 747 before Christ. The year was in all respects the same as the ancient Egyptian year. On account of the difference in the length of the Julian and Babylonian years, the conversion of dates according to the era of Nabonassar into years before Christ is attended with considerable trouble. The surest way is to follow a comparative table. Frequently the year cannot be fixed with, certainty, unless we know also the month and the day.

The Greeks of Alexandria formerly employed the era of Nabonassar, with a year of 365 days; but soon after the reformation of the calendar by Julius Caesar, they adopted, like other Roman provincials, the Julian intercalation. At this time the first of Thoth had∙receded to the 29th of August. In the year 136 of our era, the first of Thoth in the ancient Egyptian year corresponded with the 20th of July, between which and the 29th of August there are forty days. The adoption of the Julian year must therefore have taken place about 160 years before the year 136 of our era (the difference between the Egyptian and Julian years being one day in four years), that is to say, about the year 25 b.c. In fact, the first of Thoth corresponded with the 29th of August in the Julian calendar, in the years 25, 24, 23, and 22 b.c. Era of the Seleucidae, or Macedonian Era.

The era of the Seleucidae dates from the time of the occupation of Babylon by Seleucus Nicator, 311 years before Christ, in the year of Rome 442, and twelve years after the death of Alexander the Great. It was adopted not only in the monarchy of the Seleucidae but in general in all the Greek countries bordering on the Levant, was followed by the Jews till the 15th century, and is said to be used by some Arabians even at the present day. By the Jews it was called the Era of Contracts, because the Syrian governors compelled them to make use of it in civil contracts; the writers of the books of Maccabees call it the Era of Kings. But notwithstanding its general prevalence in the East for many centuries, authors using it differ much with regard to their manner of expressing dates, in consequence of the different epochs adopted for the commencement of the year. Among the Syrian Greeks the year began with the month Elul, which corresponds to our September. The Nestorians and Jacobites at the present day suppose it to begin with the following month, or October. The author of the first book of Maccabees makes the era commence with the month Nisan, or April; and the author of the second book with the first Tishrin, or October. Albategni, a celebrated Arabian astronomer, dates from the 1st of October. Some of the Arabian writers, as Alfergani, date from the 1st of September. At Tyre the year was counted from the 19th of our October, at Gaza from the 28th of the same month, and at Damascus from the vernal equinox. These discrepancies render it extremely difficult to determine the exact correspondence of Macedonian dates with those of other eras; and the difficulty is rendered still greater by the want of uniformity in respect of the length of the year. Some authors who follow the Macedonian era, use the Egyptian or vague year of 365 days; Albategni adopts the Julian year of 365½ days.

According to the computation most generally followed, the year 312 of the era of the Seleucidae began on the 1st of September in the Julian year preceding the first of our era. Hence, to reduce a Macedonian date to the common era, subtract 311 years and four months.

The names of the Syrian and Macedonian months, and their correspondence with the Roman months, are as follows :— [table]

Era of Alexander.

Some of the Greek historians have assumed as a chronological epoch the death of Alexander the Great, which took place in the year 325 b.c. The form of the year is the same as in the preceding era. This era has not been much followed; but it requires to be noticed in order that it may not be confounded with the era of the Seleucidae.

Era of Tyre.

The era of Tyre is reckoned from the 19th of October, or the beginning of the Macedonian month Hyperberetaeus, in the year 126 b.c. In order·, therefore, to reduce it to the common era, subtract 125; and when the date is b.c., subtract it from 126. Dates expressed according to this era occur only on a few medals, and in the acts of certain councils.

Caesarcan Era of Antioch.

This era was established to commemorate the victory obtained by Julius Caesar on the plains of Pharsalia, on the 9th of August in the year 48 b.c., and the 706th of Rome. The Syrians computed it from their month Tishrin I.; but the Greeks threw it back to the month Gorpiaeus of the preceding year. Hence there is a difference of eleven months between the epochs assumed by the Syrians and the Greeks. According to the computation of the Greeks, the 49th year of the Caesarean era began in the autumn of the year preceding the commencement of the Christian era; and, according to the Syrians, the 49th year began in the autumn of the first year of the Incarnation. It is followed by Evagrius in his Ecclesiastical History. Julian Era.

The Julian era commences with the 1st of January, forty-five years b.c. It was designed to commemorate the reformation of the Roman calendar by Julius Caesar.

Era of Spain, or of the Caesars.

The conquest of Spain by Augustus, which was com pleted in the thirty-ninth year b.c., gave rise to this era, which began with the first day of the following year, and was long used in Spain and Portugal, and generally in all the Roman provinces subdued by the Visigoths, both in Africa and the South of France. Several of the councils of Carthage, and also that of Arles, are dated according to this era. After the 9th century it became usual to join with it in public acts the year of the Incarnation. It was followed in Catalonia till the year 1180, in the kingdom of Aragon till 1350, in Valencia till 1358, and in Castile till 1382. In Portugal it is said to have been in use so late as the year 1415, or 1422, though it would seem that after the establishment of the Portuguese monarchy, no other era was used in the public acts of that country than that of the incarnation. As the era of Spain commenced with the 1st of January, and the months and days of the year are those of the Julian calendar, any date is reduced to the common era by subtracting thirty-eight from the number of the year.

Era of Actium, and Era of Augustus.

This era was established to commemorate the battle of Actium, which was fought on the 3d of September, in the year 31 b.c., and in the 15th of the Julian era. By the Romans the era of Actium was considered as commencing on the 1st of January of the 16th of the Julian era, which is the 30th b.c. The Egyptians, who used this era till the time of Diocletian, dated its commencement from the beginning of their month Thoth, or the 29th of August; and the Eastern Greeks from the 2d of September. By the latter it was also called the era of Antioch, and it continued to be used till the 9th century. It must not be confounded with the Caesarean era of Antioch, which began seventeen years earlier. Many of the medals struck by the city of Antioch in honour of Augustus are dated according to this era.

Besides the era of Actium, there was also an Augustan era, which commenced four years later, or 27 b.c., the year in which Augustus prevailed on the senate and people of Rome to decree him the title of Augustus, and to confirm him in the supreme power of the empire.

Era of Diocletian, or Era of Martyrs.

It has been already stated that the Alexandrians, at the accession of the Emperor Diocletian, made an alteration in their mundane era, by striking off ten years from their reckoning. At the same time they established a new era, which is still followed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It commences with the 29th of August (the first day of the Egyptian year) of the year 284 of our era, which was the first of the reign of Diocletian. The denomination of Era of Martyrs, subsequently given to it in commemoration of the persecution of the Christians, would seem to imply that its commencement ought to be referred to the year 303 of our era, for it was in that year that Diocletian issued his famous edict; but the practice of dating from the accession of Diocletian has prevailed. The ancient Egyptian year consisted of 365 days; but after the introduction of the Julian calendar, the astronomers of Alexandria adopted an intercalary year, and added six additional days instead of five to the end of the last month of every fourth year. The year thus became exactly similar to the Julian year. The Egyptian intercalary year, however, does not correspond to the Julian leap year, but is the year immediately preceding; and the intercalation takes place at the end of the year, or on the 29th of August. Hence the first three years of the Egyptian intercalary period commence on the 29th of our August, and the fourth commences on the 30th of that month. Before the end of that year the Julian intercalation takes place, and the beginning of the following Egyptian year is restored to the 29th of August. Hence to reduce a date according to this era to our own reckoning, it is necessary, for common years, to add 283 years and 240 days; but if the date belongs to the first three months of the year following the intercalation, or, which is the same thing, if in the third year of the Julian cycle it falls between the 30th of August and the end of the year, we must add 283 years and 241 days. The Ethiopians do not reckon the years from the beginning of the era in a consecutive series, but employ a period of 532 years, after the expiration of which they again begin with 1. This is the Dionysian or Great Paschal Period, and is formed by the multiplication of the numbers 28 and 19, that is, of the solar and lunar cycles, into each other.

The following are the names of the Ethiopian or Abyssinian months, with the days on which they begin in the Julian calendar, or old style;— [table]

The additional or epagomenal days begin on the 24th of August. In intercalary years the first seven months commence one day later. The Egyptian months, followed by the modern Copts, agree with the above in every respect excepting the names.

Indiction.

The cycle of Indiction, already explained at p. 670 of vol. iv., was very generally followed in the Roman empire for some centuries before the adoption of the Christian era. Three Indictions may be distinguished; but they differ only in regard to the commencement of the year.

1. The Constantinopolitan Indiction, like the Greek year, commenced with the month of September. This was followed in the Eastern empire, and in some instances also in France.

2. The Imperial or Constantinian Indiction is so called because its establishment is attributed to Constantine. This was also called the Caesarean Indixtion. It commences on the 24th of September. It is not unfrequently met with in the ancient chronicles of France and England.

3. The Roman or Pontifical Indiction began on the 25th of December or 1st of January, according as the Christian year was held to commence on the one or other of these days. It is often employed in papal bulls, especially after the time of Gregory VII., and traces of its use are found in early French authors.

Era of the Armenians.

The epoch of the Armenian era is that of the Council of Tiben, in which the Armenians consummated their schism from the Greek Church by condemning the acts of the Council of Chalcedon; and it corresponds to Tuesday, the 9th of July of the year 552 of the Incarnation. In their civil affairs the Armenians follow the ancient vague year of the Egyptians; but their ecclesiastical year, which begins on the 11th of August, is regulated in the same manner as the Julian year, every fourth year consisting of 366 days, so that Easter and the other festivals are retained at the same place in the seasons as well as in the civil year. The Armenians also make use of the mundane era of Constantinople, and sometimes conjoin both methods of computation in the same documents. In their correspondence and transactions with Europeans, they generally follow the era of the Incarnation, and adopt the Julian year.

To reduce the civil dates of the Armenians to the Christian era, proceed as follows. Since the epoch is the 9th of July, there were 176 days from the beginning of the Armenian era to the end of the year 552 of our era; and since 552 was a leap year, the year 553 began a Julian intercalary period. Multiply, therefore, the number of Armenian years elapsed by 365; add the number of days from the commencement of the current year to the given date; subtract 176 from the sum, and the remainder will be the number of days from the 1st of January 553 to the given date. This number of days being reduced to Julian years, add the result to 552, and the sum gives the day in the Julian year, or old style.

In the ecclesiastical reckoning the year begins on the 11th of August. To reduce a date expressed in this reckoning to the Julian date, add 551 years, and the days elapsed from the 1st of January to the 10th of August, both inclusive, of the year 552,—that is to say (since 552 is a leap year), 223 days. In leap years, one day must be subtracted if the date falls between the 1st of March and 10th of August.

The following are the Armenian ecclesiastical months with their correspondence with those of the Julian calendar :— [table]

To complete the year, five complementary days are added in common years, and six in leap years.

The Mahometan Era, or Era of the Hegira.

The era in use among the Turks, Arabs, and other Mahometan nations is that of the Hegira or Hefra, the flight of the prophet from Mecca to Medina, 622 a.d. Its commencement, however, does not, as is sometimes stated, coincide with the very day of the flight, but precedes it by sixty-eight days. The prophet, after leaving Mecca, to escape the pursuit of his enemies, the Koreishites, hid himself with his friend Abubekr in a cave near Mecca, and there lay for three days. The departure from the cave and setting out on the way to Medina is assigned to the ninth day of the third month, Rabia I.—corresponding to the 22d of September of the year 622 a.d. The era begins from the first day of the month of Moharram preceding the flight, or first day of that Arabian year, which coincides with Friday, July 16, 622 a.d. It is necessary to remember that by astronomers and by some historians the era is assigned to the preceding day, July 15. It is stated by D’Herbelot that the era of the Hegira was instituted by Omar, the second caliph, in imitation of the Christian era of the martyrs. (For details of the Mahometan year, names and length of months, and for the method of reduction of Mahometan dates to Christian, see vol. iv. pp. 679-681).

Era of Υezdegird, or Persian or Gelaloean Era.

This era commences with the elevation of Yezdegird III. to the throne of Persia, on the 16th of June in the year of our era 632. Till the year 1079 the Persian year resembled that of the ancient Egyptians, consisting of 365 days without intercalation; but at that time the Persian calendar was reformed by Gelal-ed-din Malek Shah, sultan of Khorasan, and a method of intercalation adopted which, though less convenient, is considerably more accurate than the Julian. The intercalary period is 33 years,—one day being added to the common year seven times successively at the end of four years, and the eighth intercalation being deferred till the end of the fifth year (see vol. iv. p, 667). This era was at one period universally adopted in Persia, and it still continues to be followed by the Parsees of India. The months consist of thirty days each, and each day is distinguished by a different name. According to Alfergani, the names of the Persian months are as follows :— [table]

The five additional days (in intercalary years six) are named Musteraca.

As it does not appear that the above-mentioned rule of intercalation was ever regularly followed, it is impossible to assign exactly the days on which the different years begin. In some provinces of India the Parsees begin the year with September, in others they begin it with October. We have stated that the era began with the 16th June 632. But the vague year, which was followed till 1079, anticipated the Julian year by one day every four years. In 447 years the anticipation would amount to about 112 days, and the beginning of the year would in consequence be thrown back to near the beginning of the Juhan year 632. To the year of the Persian era, therefore, add 631, and the sum will be the year of our era in which the Persian year begins.

Chinese Chronology.

From the time of the Emperor Yaou, upwards of 2000 years b.c., the Chinese had two different years,—a civil year, which was regulated by the moon, and an astronomical year, which was solar. The civil year consisted in general of twelve months or lunations, but occasionally a thirteenth was added, in order to preserve its correspondence with the solar year. Even at that early period the solar or astronomical year consisted of 365½ days, like our Julian year; and it was arranged in the same manner, a day being intercalated every fourth year.

According to the missionary Gaubil, the Chinese divided the day into 100 ke, each ke into 100 minutes, and each minute into 100 seconds. This practice continued to prevail till the 17th century, when, at the instance of the Jesuit Schall, president of the tribunal of mathematics, they adopted the European method of dividing the day into twenty-four hours, each hour into sixty minutes, and each minute into sixty seconds. The civil day commences at midnight and ends at the midnight following.

Since the accession of the emperors of the Han dynasty, 206 b.c., the civil year of the Chinese has begun with the first day of that moon in the course of which the sun enters into the sign of the zodiac which corresponds with our sign Pisces. From the same period also, they have employed, in the adjustment of their solar and lunar years, a period of nineteen years, twelve of which are common, containing twelve lunations each, and the remaining seven intercalary, containing thirteen lunations. It is not, how ever, precisely known how they distributed their months of thirty and twenty-nine days, or, as they termed them, great and small moons, This, with other matters appertaining to the calendar, was probably left to be regulated from time to time by the mathematical tribunal.

The Chinese divide the time of a complete revolution of the sun with regard to the solstitial points into twelve equal portions, each corresponding to thirty days, ten hours, thirty minutes. Each of these periods, which is denominated a tsëĕ, is subdivided into two equal portions called chung-ki and tsie-ki, the chung-ki denoting the first half of the tsëĕ, and the tsie-ki the latter half. Though the tsëĕ are thus strictly portions of solar time, yet, what is remarkable, though not peculiar to China, they give their name to the lunar months, each month or lunation having the name of the chung-ki or sign at which the sun arrives during that month. As the tdèë is longer than a synodic revolution of the moon, the sun cannot arrive twice at a clιuιιg-ki during the same lunation; and as there are only twelve teeĕ, the year can contain only twelve months having different names. It must happen sometimes that in the course of a lunation the sun enters into no new sign; in this case the month is intercalary, and is called by the same name as the preceding month.

For chronological purposes, the Chinese, in common with some other nations of the east of Asia, employ cycles of sixty, by means of which they reckon their days, moons, and years. The days are distributed in the calendar into cycles of sixty, in the same manner as ours are distributed into weeks, or cycles of seven. Each day of the cycle has a particular name, and as it is a usual practice, in mentioning dates, to give the name of the day along with that of the moon and the year, this arrangement affords great facilities in verifying the epochs of Chinese chronology. The order of the days in the cycle is never interrupted by any intercalation that may be necessary for adjusting the months or years. The moons of the civil year are also distinguished by their place in the cycle of sixty; and as the intercalary moons are not reckoned, for the reason before stated, namely, that during one of these lunations the sun enters into no new sign, there are only twelve regular moons in a year, so that the cycle is renewed every five years. Thus the first moon of the year 1873 being the first of a new cycle, the first moon of every sixth year, reckoned backwards or forwards from that date, as 1868, 1863, <fcc., or 1877, 1882, &c., will also commence a new lunar cycle of sixty moons. In regard to the years, the arrangement is exactly the same. Each has a distinct number or name which marks its place in the cycle, and as this is generally given in referring to dates, along with the other chronological characters of the year, the ambiguity which arises from following a fluctuating or uncertain epoch is entirely obviated. The present cycle began in the year 1864 of our era; the year 1876 is consequently the 13th of the current cycle.

The cycle of sixty is formed of two subordinate cycles or series of characters one of ten and the other of twelve, which are joined together so as to afford sixty different combinations. The names of the characters in the cycle of ten, which are called celestial signs, are—

1. Keă; 2. Yïh; 3. Ping; 4. Ting; 5. Woo;

6. Ke; 7. Kăng; 8. Sin; 9. Jin; 10. Kwei; and in the series of 12, denominated terrestrial signs,

1. Tsze; 2. Chow; 3. Yin; 4. Maou; 5. Shin; 6. Sze; 7. Woo; 8. We; 9. Shin; 10. Yew; 11. Seŭh; 12. Hae. The name of the first year, or of the first day, in the sexagenary cycle is formed by combining the first words in each of the above series; the second is formed by combining the second of each series, and so on to the tenth. For the next year the first word of the first series is combined with the eleventh of the second, then the second of the first series with the twelfth of the second, after this the third of the first series with the first of the second, and so on till the sixtieth combination, when the last of the first series concurs with the last of the second. Thus Keă-tsze is the name of the first year, Yĭh-Chow that of the second, Keă-seuh that of the eleventh, Yïh-hae that of the twelfth, Ping-tsze that of the thirteenth, and so on. The order of proceeding is obvious.

In the Chinese history translated into the Tatar dialect by order of the emperor Kang-he. who died in 1721, the characters of the cycle begin to appear at the year 2357 b.c. From this it has been inferred that the Chinese empire was established previous to that epoch; but it is obviously so easy to extend the cycles backwards indefinitely, that the inference can have very little weight. The characters given to that year 2357 b.c. are Keă-shin, which denote the 41st of the cycle. We must, therefore, suppose the cycle to have begun 2397 b.c., or forty years before the reign of Yaou. This is the epoch assumed by the authors of E Art de Verifier les Dates. The mathematical tribunal has, however, from time immemorial counted the first year of the first cycle from the eighty-first of Yaou, that is to say, from the year 2277 B.c.

Since the year 163 b.c. the Chinese writers have adopted the practice of dating the year from the accession of the reigning emperor. An emperor, on succeeding to the throne, gives a name to the years of his reign. He ordains, for example, that they shall be called Ta-te. In consequence of this edict, the following year is called the first of Ta-te, and the succeeding years the second, third, fourth, &c., of Ta-te, and so on, till· it pleases the same emperor or his successor to ordain that the years shall be called by some other appellation. The periods thus formed are called by the Chinese Nien-hao. According to this method of dating the years a new era commences with every reign; and the year corresponding to a Chinese date can only be found when we have before us a catalogue of the Nien-hao, with their relation to the years of our era.

The Chinese chronology is discussed with ample detail by Freret, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions, tom. xviii.; and an abridgment of his memoir is given in EArt de Verifier les Dates (tom. ii. p. 284, et seq. ; ed. in 4to, 1818), from which the preceding account is principally taken.

Indian Chronology.

The method of dividing and reckoning time followed by the various nations of India resembles in its genera] features that of the Chinese, but is rendered still more complex by the intermixture of Mahometan with Hindu customs. Like the Chinese, the Hindus have a solar year, which is generally followed in the transaction of public business, especially since the introduction of European power; and they have also a lunar year, which regulates their religious festivals, and which they follow in their domestic arrangements. Their solar year, or rather sidereal year, is measured by the time in which the sun returns to the same star, and is consequently longer than our astronomical year, by the whole quantity of the precession of the equinoxes. It is reckoned by the Hindus at 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 30 seconds, and consequently exceeds a Gregorian year by one day in sixty years. The Indian zodiac is divided into twelve solar and twenty-eight lunar signs; and the year begins with the sun’s arrival at the first degree of the first sign. The month is the time the sun takes to pass through one sign; and as each sign contains the same number of degrees, the months vary somewhat in length, according as the sun is nearer the apogee or the perigee. The longest month may contain 31 days, 14 hours, 39 minutes, and the shortest only 29 days. 8 hours, 21 minutes. The civil months, however, depend solely ou the moon; though, with the same perversion of ingenuity which we have already remarked with regard to the Chinese, and of which it would be difficult to find an example except in the east of Asia, they derive their names from the solar signs of the zodiac. The first civil month commences with the day after the full moon of that lunation in the course of which the sun enters the first Hindu sign, and so on with the others. When the sun enters into no new sign during the course of alunation, the month is intercalary, and is called by the name of that which precedes or follows it, which some prefix to distinguish it from the regular month. In some provinces of India, as in Bengal, the civil month commences with the day after the new moon; but in the upper or northern provinces, it begins, as we have stated, with the day after the full moon. From the manner in which they are reckoned, it is evident that the Hindu months, both solar and lunar, neither consist of an entire number of days, nor are regulated by any cycle, but depend solely on the motion of the sun and moon. The time of their commencement is different on every different meridian; and a Hindu has no means of knowing beforehand on what day any month begins, excepting by consulting his almanac. The civil day in all parts of India begins at sunrise.

The Hindu eras have been the subject of much controversy. According to the dreams of Indian mythology, the duration of the world is limited to four yugs or ages, three of which have already passed, and the fourth, which is the kalv-yug, is the last and most deteriorated. It is this only which has any reference to authentic chronology. It forms the principal era of India, and comprehends several others in common use, as the era of Vicramaditya, the era of Salivahana, the Bengalee era, and the cycle of sixty years.

The Kalτ-yug commenced in the year 3101 b.c. The year is sidereal, and begins when the sun enters the first sign of the Hindu zodiac, which at present happens about the 11 th of April. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes the beginning of the year advances in the seasons at the rate of about one day in sixty years.

The Era of Vicramaditya is reckoned from the year 57 B.c., which corresponds to 3044: of the Kali∙yug. This era, the years of which are called Samvai, prevails chiefly in the higher or northern provinces of India, and in Guzerat. Its name is derived from that of a sovereign of* Malwa, who, by defeating Saka, king of Delhi, acquired possession of the principal throne of India. Whether the year from which it is reckoned was that of the accession or death of this prince is uncertain. The years are reckoned in the same manner as those of the Kali-yug; and it may be remarked of the Indian eras in general that, though some of them profess to be counted from the deaths of their kings, or other historical events, they all commence at the time the sun reaches the same point in his annual course through the zodiac.

The Era of Salivahana is the year 78 a.d., which corresponds to 3179 of the Kali-yug, and 135 of the Vicramaditya. The name is derived from Salivahan, who is said to have reigned many years over the kingdom of Narsinga, and to have been a liberal encourager cf the arts and sciences. It is generally used in records or writings of importance, but is most prevalent in the southern provinces of Hindustan. The years are called Saka.

The Fuslee Era, from the near coincidence of its dates with those of the Hegira, seems to have been imposed on the natives of India by their Mahometan conquerors. It is principally used in revenue transactions, and is pretty generally known over India. There are several eras of this name; but the most common is that which is reckoned from the year 590 a.d. At Madras the commencement of the Fuslee year is fixed on the 12th of July. In Bengal it begins in September, or with the full moon preceding the autumnal equinox.

The Bengalee Era is also supposed to be derived from the Hegira; but the year is measured by solar time, and therefore differs entirely from the Mahometan year, which is purely lunar. At the present time the Bengalee epoch is about nine years later than the Hegira,—the year 1245 of the Hegira having commenced in July 1829, and the Bengalee year 1236 in April 1829. The sidereal year exceeds the lunar year by 10 days 21 ½ hours nearly; consequently, by reckoning backwards, it will be found that the dates of the Bengalee era and of the Hegira coincided about the middle of the 16th century. History is silent on the subject; but it seems probable, that though the epoch of the Hegira was partially adopted in India, the Hindus pertinaciously resisted all attempts to disturb their ancient methods of reckoning the subdivisions of the year.

Besides the Indian eras here enumerated, there are some others which are less generally known, or which are followed only in particular provinces. The cycle of sixty years is also sometimes used, particularly in connection with the era of Vicramaditya. According to the Bengal account, the first cycle began 3185 years b.c.; and the year 1876 of our era is consequently the twenty-first of the eighty-fifth cycle. In the Telinga account the first cycle began 3114 b.c.; and the year 1876 is the tenth of the eighty-fourth cycle.

Fuller information regarding Indian chronology will be found in Prinsep’s Essays on Indian Antiquities (1858), vol. ii., Warren’s Kala Sankalita (1825), and Burnett’s Elements of South Indian Palaeography (1874).

Principal Works on Chronology.

To meet the wants of those who may desire to enter more fully into chronological studies, we subjoin a list of the leading works on the subject. In addition to the early Greek writings already named, there are the forty books (some fifteen only extant in their entirety) of universal history compiled (about 8 b.c. ) by Diodorus Siculus, and arranged in the form of annals; the Pentabïblos of Julius Africanus (about 220-230 A.D.); the treatise of Censorinus entitled De die natali, written 238 a.d. ; the Chronicon, in two books, of Eusebius Pamphili, bishop of Caesarea (about 325 a.d.), distinguished as the first book of a purely chronological character which has come down to us; and three important works forming parts of the Corpus Scriptorum Historioe Byzantinoe, namely, the Chronographia of Georgius Synce∏us (800 A.D.), the Chrσno-graphia of Johannes Malalas (9th century), and the Chronicon Paschale.

Among the very numerous modern works on Chronology, the most important are the following, which are arranged in the order of their publication :—

1583. De Emendatione Temporum, by Joseph Scaliger, in which were laid the foundations of modem chronological science.

1603. Opus Chronologisum, by Sethus Calvisius.

1627. De Doctrina Temporum, by Petavius (Denis Petau), with its continuation published in 1630, and an abridgment entitled Rationarium Temporum, in 1633-1634.

1650. Annales Veteris et Novi Testamenti, by Archbishop Ussher, whose dates have by some means gained a place in the authorized version of the Bible.

1651. Regia Epitoms Historioe Sacroe et Profanoe, by Philippe Labbe, of which a French version was also published.

1669. Institutionum Chronologicarum libri duo, by Bishop Beveridge.

1672. Chronicus Canon Aegyptiasus, Ebraιcus, et Groecus, by Sir John Marsham.

1687. L'Antiquité des Temps rétablie et défendue, by Paul Pezron, with its Défense, 1691.

1701. De Veteribus Graecorum Romanrrumque Cyclis, by Henry Dodwell.

1728. The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms amended, by Sir Isaac Newton, remarkable as an attempt to construct a system on new bases, independent of the Greek chronologers.

1738. Chronologie de l'histoire saints, by Alphonse des Vignolles.

1744. Tablettes chronologiques de l'histoire universelle, by N. Lenglet-Dufresnoy.

1750. The first edition in one vol. 4to of L'Art de Verifier les Dates, which in its third edition (1818-1831) appeared in 38 vols. 8vo., a colossal monument of the learning and labours of various members of the Benedictine Congregation of Saint-Maur.

1752. Chronological Antiquities, by John Jackson.

1754. Chronology and History of the World, by John Blair; new edition, much enlarged, 1857.

1784. A System of Chronology, by Playfair.

1799. Handbuch der Geschichte der Staaten des AUerthums, by A. H. L. Heeren.

1803. Handbuch der alten Geschichte, Geographie, und Chronologie, by G. G. Bredow, with his Historische Tabellen.

1809-1814. New Analysis of Chronology, by William Hales.

1819. Annales Veterum Regnorum, by C. G. Zumpt.

1821. Tableaux historiques, chronologiques, et géographiques, by Buret de Longchamps.

1824-1834. Fasti Hellenici, and 1845-1850, Fasti Romani, by H. Fynes Clinton. Epitomes of these elaborate works were published, 1851-1853.

1825-1826. Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie, by Christian Ludwig Ideler; and his Lehrbuch der Chronologie, 1831.

1833. The Chronology of History, by Sir Harris Nicolas.

1852. Fasti Temporis Catholici, by Edward Greswell; and by the same author, 1854, Origines Kalendariae Italicoe ; and 1862, Origines Kalendariae Hellenicae.

1865. Fasti Sacri, a key to the chronology of the New Testament, by Thomas Lewin.

1869. Manual of Ancient History, by G. Rawlinson.

1872. Encyclopaedia of Chronology, by B. B. Woodward and W. L. R. Cates.

1875. Handbook of Rules and Tables for verifying dates with the Christian Era, by E. A. Bond.

1875. The Assyrian Eponym Canon, by George Smith.

Chronological Table Of the principal events of political and ' military history, with notices of great men and famous books, and of the most important inventions and discoveries, from the earliest times to the close of the year 1875.

Chronological tables, however unattractive to minds whose inclinations or occupations do not lie in the direction of them, are of much value and real interest for those who have knowledge and occasion to make a right use of them. To the historical student they not only serve as a storehouse of individual facts with dates, but by the orderly juxtaposition and sequence of these they indicate relations. They are maps on which are delineated or suggested the lines of the main currents in the ocean of human history. When the student, engaged on any special series of events, desires to find their place and surroundings in world-history, he has but to turn to such tables, and a glance or two will inform him.

In the preparation of the subjoined table great pains have been taken to bring it as closely as possible into agreement with the results of recent historical and chronological determinations. -Events and dates of purely legendary character, once accepted as historical facts with unquestioning acquiescence, have no place in it; and the whole has been subjected to a searching examination and comparison with the best sources of information. The conflict of the authorities makes absolute certainty in many cases unattainable. The reader will therefore remember in using the table, that, as differences and authorities cannot be given, the dates are necessarily in some cases approximate or probable only.

2234. b.c. Alleged beginning of Chaldaean astronomical observ-tions sent by Callisthenes to Aristotle; the earliest extant is of 720 B.c.

2200 {circa). The Hia dynasty in China founded.

2000 (circa). Cuneiform writing probably in use (deciphered by Grotefend, 1802 a.d.)

1582. Beginning of chronology of Arundelian (Parian) marbles. (Brought to England, 1627 A.D.)

1500 (circa). Date of the oldest papyri extant.

1273. Rise of Assyrian empire, according to Rawlinson.

1150 {circa). Cylinder inscription of Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria (deciphered, 1857 a.d.)

1100 {circa). The Chow dynasty in China founded.

1055. David king of Israel.

1012. Building of Solomon’s Temple.

989-959. Capture of Jerusalem by Shishank (Shishak), king of Egypt, in this period.

909 b.c. Commencement of Assyrian canon, which terminates 640 b.c. (Discovered and published by Rawlinson, 1862 A.D.)

900. Erection of North-West Palace of Nimroud, according to Layard.

884 (?). Legislation of Lycurgus at Sparta.

776. Olympiad of Coroebus. The first authentic date in Greek history.

770. Invasion of Palestine by Pul, king of Assyria.

753. Foundation of Rome, according to Varro.

747. Babylon independent under Nabonassar.

743-723. First Messenian war.

727. Religious reformation under Hezekiah, king of Judah.

721. Samaria taken by Sargon, king of Assyria. Overthrow of the kingdom of Israel. Captivity of the ten tribes.

711 {circa). Invasion of Judah by Sennacherib.

685-668. Second Messenian war, under Aristomenes.

684. Archonship at Athens made annual.

667-625. Reign of Assur-bani-pal, king of Assyria.

659. Foundation of Byzantium by Megarians.

640. Religious reformation under Josiah, king of Judah.

632. Invasion of Assyria by Scyths.

625 (606 ?). Fall of Nineveh. Babylon independent under Nabopolassar.

624. Legislation of Draco, archon at Athens.

610. Battle of Megiddo. Death of Josiah.

598. Siege and capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. Second captivity.

594. Legislation of Solon, archon at Athens.

588. The Pythian games begin to be celebrated every five years.

585. Death of Periander, tyrant of Corinth forty years. Eclipse of the sun, predicted by Thales (?).

579. Tyre taken by Nebuchadnezzar.

569. Nebuchadnezzar’s conquest of Egypt.

560. Pisistratus tyrant of Athens (died, 527).

559. Anacreon begins to be known (still living in 529).

556. Birth of Simonides (died, 467).

554 (?). Conquest of Lydia and capture of Croesus by Cyrus, king of Persia.

549. Death of Phalaris tyrant of Agrigentum.

540-510 (?). Pythagoras flourished.

538. Babylon taken by Cyrus. The Jews soon after return to Judea.

536. The Jews, under Zerubbabel, begin to rebuild the Temple.

535. Thespis first exhibits tragedy.

532. Polycrates tyrant of Samos (put to death, 522).

529. Death of Cyrus. Accession of Cambyses.

525. Battle of Pelusium. Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses. Birth of Aeschylus (died, 456).

521-485. Reign of Darius Hystaspis, king of Persia. Inscription of Behistun (translated by Rawlinson, 1846 A.D.)

520. Decree of Darius fo. rebuilding the Temple at Jerusalem.

518. Birth of Pindar (died, 439).

510. The Pisistratidae expelled from Athens. Democratic Government restored.

508. First treaty between Rome and Carthage.

507, 506. Conquest of Thrace, Paeonia, and Macedonia by Darius.

500. Burning of Sardis by the Ionians and Athenians.

497. Battle of Lake Regillus. First authentic date in Roman history.

495. Birth of Sophocles (died, 406).

492. First Persian expedition, under Mardonius, against Greece.

490. Second Persian expedition, under Datis and Artaphernes. Victory of Miltiades at Marathon.

485. Accession of Xerxes, king of Persia. Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse.

484. Recovery of Egypt by the Persians. Birth of Herodotus (died, after 409).

483. Ostracism of Aristides the Just by the Athenians.

481. Expedition of Xerxes to Greece.

480. Battle of Thermopylae,—fall of Leonidas. Battle of Salamis, —victory of Themistocles. Occupation of Athens by Xerxes. First Carthaginian invasion of Sicily. Defeat of Carthaginians by Gelon at Himera. Birth of Euripides (died, 406).

480-450. Anaxagoras teaches philosophy at Athens.

479. Occupation of Athens by Mardonius. Battles of Plataea and Mycale. Siege of Sestos. Departure of Xerxes from Greece.

477. Beginning of Athenian supremacy.

471. Ostracism of Themistocles. Birth of Thucydides (died, after 403 ?).

470. Victory of Cimon over the Persians at the Eurymedon.

469. Pericles begins to take part in public affairs at Athens. _

468. Birth of Socrates. Destruction of Mycenae by the Argives.

466. Flight of Themistocles to Persia. Siege of Naxos. Battles at the Eurymedon.

465. Death of Xerxes.

464 b.c. Revolt of the Helots at Sparta. Third (fourth?) Messenian war, which lasts ten years.

460. Revolt of Egypt (suppressed, 455). Births of Democritus and Hippocrates (both died, 357).

459. Gorgias flourished.

458. Birth of Lysias the orator (died, 378).

457. Battles of Tanagra. Return of the Jews under Ezra.

456. The long walls of Athens completed.

451. The first Decemvirate at Rome. Laws of the Twelve Tables.

448. Tyranny of the second Decemvirate. Secession of the Plebs. Abdication of the Decemvirs. Cirrhaean (first Sacred) war about the temple of Delphi.

447. Battle of Coronea.

445. Thirty years’ truce between Athens and Sparta concluded.

444. Pericles becomes supreme at Athens. Birth of Xenophon about this time (died, 359).

443-438. The Parthenon at Athens built by Phidias.

442. New constitution at Rome,—censors and military tribunes appointed instead of consuls.

440-439. Siege and reduction of Samos by Pericles.

436. Birth of Isocrates (died, 338).

431. Peloponnesian war began; lasting twenty-seven years. Potidaea besieged by Athenians (reduced, 429). Death of Pericles. Influence of Cleon. Birth of Plato (died, 347).

430. The Plague at Athens.

428. Revolt of Mytilene.

427. Reduction of Mytilene. First Athenian expedition to Sicily. First comedy of Aristophanes exhibited. Siege of Plataea.

423. Alcibiades begins to act in public affairs.

418. Battle of Mantinea.

415. Expedition to Sicily under Nicias :—Siege of Syracuse, 414; surrender of Nicias, 413.

412. First treaties between Sparta and Persia. Constitution of the Four Hundred at Athens. Intrigues of Alcibiades with the Persians.

409. Second invasion of Sicily by the Carthaginians.

407. Foundation of Rhodes.

406. Battle of Arginusae. Condemnation of the ten generals. Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse; reigns thirty-eight years.

405. Battle of Aegospotami.

404. Athens taken by Lysander. End of Peloponnesian war. Government of the Thirty Tyrants. Spartan supremacy. Death of Alcibiades.

403. Restoration of democratic government at Athens by Thrasybulus.

402. Birth of Phocion (died, 317).

401. Expedition of Cyrus the younger. Battle of Cunaxa. Death of Cyrus. Retreat of the ten thousand Greeks.

401-384. Ctesias flourished.

399. Prosecution and death of Socrates.

398. Campaign and peace of Dercyllidas.

396. First campaign of Agesilaus in Asia.

394. Corinthian war begins.

393. The long walls of Athens restored.

392. Veil stormed by Camillus.

389 (circa). Birth of Aeschines (died, 314).

387. Peace of Antalcidas. Greek cities in Asia subjected to Persia. End of Corinthian war. Rome burnt by the Gauls.

384. Birth of Aristotle (died, 322).

382. Seizure of the Cadmea at Thebes by Phoebidas. Olynihian war (ends, 379). Birth of Demosthenes (died, 322).

380 (circa). Death of Aristophanes.

379. Recovery of the Cadmea by Pelopidas.

376. Victory of Chabrias over the Spartans in sea-fight off Naxos.

372. Peace between Athens and Sparta.

371. Victory of Epaminondas over the Spartans at Leuctra. Foundation of Megalopolis.

370. Jason of Pherae assassinated.

367. Embassy of Pelopidas to Persia. Aristotle goes to Athens, and remains with Plato twenty years.

364. Licinian laws passed at Rome. Institution of praetorship and curule aedileship. Plebeian consul elected, 363.

362. Battle of Mantinea,—victory and death of Epaminondas.

359. Philip, king of Macedonia.

358. Beginning of Social war. Sieges of Chios and Byzantium. Amphipolis taken by Philip.

357. Phocian (or Sacred) war begins. Delphi seized by Phocians. Expedition of Dion to Sicily.

356. Birth of Alexander the Great· Temple of Ephesus burnt. Expulsion of Dionysius from Syracuse by Dion.

355. End of Social war. Independence of Rhodes, Cos, Chios, and Byzantium acknowledged by Athens.

352. Demosthenes delivers his first Philippic.

349-347. Olynthian war. Olynthus taken by Philip.

346. Surrender of Phocis to Philip. End of the Sacred war. Philip admitted to Amphictyonie Council. Dionysius recovers the tyranny.

343 b.c. Conquest of Syracuse by Timoleon. Expulsion of Dionysius. Embassy of Demosthenes with others to Philip.

342-341. Philip’s expedition to Thrace

341. Birth of Epicurus (died, 270).

340. First Samnite war begins. Perinthus and Byzantium besieged by Philip. Victory of Timoleon over the Carthaginians at the Crimisus.

338. Philip, general of the Amphictyonie League. Battle of Chaeronea. Greece subjugated.

337-335. The Latin war. Supremacy of Rome over Latium.

336. Murder of Philip. * Accession of Alexander. Accession of Darius Codomannus.

335. Alexander destroys Thebes; is chosen generalissimo of the Greeks.

334. Battle of the Granicus.

333. Battle of Issus.

332. Siege and capture of Tyre. Conquest of Egypt. Foundation of Alexandria.

331. Battle of Arbela. Subjugation of Persia.

330. Murder of Darius.

327-325. Campaigns of Alexander in India. Voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates.

323. Death of Alexander at Babylon. Second Samnite war; lasts twenty-one years.

321. First war among the “successors of Alexander.’ The Romans surrender to the Samnites and pass under the yoke at the Caudine Forks.

315. Thebes rebuilt by Cassander.

313. Samnite victory at Lautulae.

312. Battle of Gaza. Victory of Ptolemy and Seleucus over Demetrius Poliorcetes. Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. The Appian way and aqueducts constructed (1).

304. Siege of Rhodes by Demetrius.

301. Battle of Ipsus. Final division of Alexander’s dominions.

300 (circa). Chandragupta (Sandracottus) reigns in India; he makes a treaty with Seleucus. Foundation of Antioch by Seleucus.

299. Athens besieged and taken by Demetrius.

298-290. Third Samnite war.

295. Battle of Sentinum.

287. Birth of Archimedes (died, 212).

286. The Hortensian law passed at Rome; plebiscita declared binding on the whole people.

284 (circa). Alexandrian library founded by Ptolemy Soter.

280. Achaean League established. Invasion of Italy by Pyrrhus. Birth of Chrysippus (died, 207).

279. Irruption of the Gauls into Greece. First plebeian censor ⅛t Rome.

274. Battle of Beneventum. Pyrrhus defeated,—leaves Italy.

269. Silver money first coined at Rome

268. Berosus flourished.

265. Rome supreme over all Italy.

264. First Punic war begins. Chronology of Parian marbles ends.

260. First Roman fleet launched. Victory of Duilius off Mylae.

260-230 (circa). Reign of Asoka in India.

256. Victory of Regulus at Ecnomus. Invasion of Africa.

255. Defeat and capture of Regulus by Carthaginians. Evacuation of Africa.

250 (circa). Parthia becómes an independent kingdom under Arsaces.

247. The Thsin dynasty iu China founded.

241. Defeat of Carthaginians by Catulus at the Aegates Insulae. End of the first Punic war. Attalus, king of Pergamus.

240. The plays of Livius Andronicus exhibited (the first) at Rome.

238. Date of the Decree of Canopus: tablet of San (discovered by Lepsius, 1866 a.d.)

237. Conquest of Spain attempted by the Carthaginians. Seizure of Sardinia and Corsica by the Romans.

235. The gate of Janus shut.

234. Birth of Cato Major (died, 149).

227. Cleomenic war begins.

226. Reforms of Cleomenes at Sparta.

225-220. The Gauls driven from Cisalpine Gaul.

219. Siege of Saguntum by Hannibal. Beginning of second Punic war.

218. March of Hannibal from Spain into Italy. Passage of the Pyrenees and the Alps. Battles of the Ticinus and the Trebia.

217. Hannibal’s passage of the Apennines. Battle of Lake Trasimenus. The two Scipios sent to Spain.

216. Battle of Cannae. Alliance of Hannibal with Philip II. of Macedonia.

214—212. Siege and capture of Syracuse by Marcellus.

211. Defeat.and death of the two Scipios in Spain. Capua recovered by Rome. Conquest of Judea by Antiochus.

211-205. First Macedonian war.

207. Battle of the Metaurus; Hasdrubal defeated and slain by the Romans. First gold coinage at Rome.

204. Scipio conducts the war in Africa. Siege of Utica.

202 B.C. Defeat of Hannibal at Zama.

201. Treaty of peace; end of second Punic war.

200-197. Second Macedonian war.

198. Flamininus proclaims liberty to the Greeks.

197. Battle of Cynoscephelae. Philip defeated by Flamininus.

192. Philopoemen praetor of the Achaean League.

192-190. War between the Romans and Antiochus the Great. Battle of Magnesia.

188. The laws and discipline of Lycurgus abolished by Philopoemen.

184. Death of Plautus.

179. Perseus king of Macedonia.

172-168. Third Macedonian war:—battle of Pydna, victory of Aemilius Paulus over Perseus; Macedonia made a Roman province, 142.

168. Jerusalem taken by Antiochus Epiphanes.

167. Revolt of Judas Maccabaeus. His occupation of Jerusalem (except the citadel), 165.

166. First comedy of Terence performed at Rome.

160-145. Hipparchus flourishes.

159. Death of Terence.

149. Third Punic war begins.

149-133. Lusitanian war,—Viriathus commands the Lusitanians; fall of Numantia, 133.

146. Rome declares war against the Achaean League. Carthage taken and destroyed by Scipio, Corinth by Mummius. Province of Africa constituted.

138. Birth of Sulla (died, 78).

134-132. Servile war in Sicily.

133. Laws of Tiberius Gracchus passed at Rome. Gracchus murdered. Kingdom of Pergamus bequeathed to Rome.

121. Reforms of Cains Gracchus. Gracchus murdered.

116. Birth of Varro (died, 28).

113. The Cimbri and Teutones invade Gaul.

111-106. Jugurthine war, conducted by Metellus and Marius.

109-101. War of Rome with the Cimbri and Teutones.

106. Birth of Pompey and of Cicero.

102. Victory of Marius over the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae (Aix).

101. Victory of MariusovertheCimbriatVercellae. End of the war.

100. Birth of C. Julius Caesar.

95. Birth of Lucretius (died, 55).

90-88. The Social (Italian) war.

88. First Mithridatic war. Civil war of Marius and Sulla. Sulla occupies Rome. 87. Marius retakes Rome. Proscription.

86. Death of Marius, Athens stormed by Sulla. Birth of Sallust (died, 34)

84. Sulla makes peace with Mithridates.

83. War with Marian party in Italy.

82. Victory at the Colline Gate. Occupation of Rome. Dictatorship. Proscription.

79. Retirement of Sulla (dies, 78).

79-72. Civil war of Sertorius in Spain; and of Lepidus and Catulus in Italy.

74-65. Third Mithridatic war 73-72. Victories of Lucullus.

73-71. Servile war in Italy. Spartacus defeated by Crassus.

70. Consulship of Pompey and Crassus. Birth of Virgil (died, 19).

69. Victory of Lucullus over Tigranes.

67. First appearance of Caesar. Pompey reduces the pirates.

66. Lucullus recalled. Pompey sent into Asia; ends the war.

64. Pompey reduces Syria to a province:—Jerusalem taken, 63.

63. Birth of Augustus. Second conspiracy of Catiline. Orations of Cicero.

60. Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus form the first Triumvirate.

59. Birth of Livy (died, 17 A.D.)

58 The Gallic war begins.

55, 54. Caesar invades Britain. Crassus in the east; defeated and killed by the Parthians, 53.

52-51. Caesar’s war with Vercingetorix. Murder of Claudius by Milo.

51. Subjugation of Gaul completed.

49. Civil war between Caesar and Pompey. Pompey driven from Italy. The Pompeians defeated in Spain. Caesar dictator.

48. Battle of Pharsalia. Murder of Pompey in Egypt. Caesar and Cleopatra.

47. Caesar dictator again. War in Egypt. Partial destruction of the Alexandrian library. Caesar defeats Phamaces at Zela (Peni, υidi, vid).

46. African war. Battle of Thapsus. Death of Cato. Reformation of the calendar by Caesar. His triumphs.

45. War in Spain. Battle of Munda;—defeat of the Pompeians. Caesar Pater Patrice, Imperator for life, Dictator.

44. Assassination of Caesar. Flight of Brutus and Cassius. Antony master of Rome. Corinth and Carthage rebuilt.

43. Battle of Mutina. Second triumvirate—C. Octavius, Μ. Antony, Μ. Lepidus. Cicero put to death. Birth of Ovid (died, 18 A.D.) '

42 b.c. Battles of Philippi. Deaths of Brutus and Cassius. The triumviri masters of the Roman world.

41. Meeting of Antony and Cleopatra at Tarsus.

40. Herod made king of the Jews.

36. Sextus Pompeius driven from Sicily (put to death, 35). Lepidus deprived of power.

32. War between Octavius and Antony.

31. Battle of Actium. Establishment of the Roman empire.

30. Deaths of Antony and Cleopatra.

29. The Gate of Janus shut.

27. Caesar is made emperor for ten years and receives the title Augustus.

25. The Gate of Janus shut.

18. Imperial dignity reconferred; again, 8 B.0., 3, and 12 A.D.

17-7. Temple at Jerusalem rebuilt by Herod.

15. Victories of Drusus over the Rhaeti.

12. Invasion of Germany by Drusus.

11-9. Campaigns of Tiberius in Pannonia and Dalmatia.

4. Birth of Christ, according to Ussher’s system. Death of Herod.

4-6 a.d. Campaigns of Tiberius in Germany.

9. Destruction of Varus and three legions by Germans under Hermann (Arminius).

14. Death of Augustus. Accession of Tiberius.

14-16. Campaigns of Germanicus in Germany.

23. Influence of Sejanus.

25 or 26. Pontius Pilate, governor of Judea.

27. Tiberius retires to Capreae.

33. The Crucifixion, according to Eusebius; 29, according to Lactantius, Augustine, Origen, and other authorities.

37. Accession of Caligula. Birth of Josephus.

41. Claudius emperor.

43. Expedition of Claudius to Britain. Successes of Aulus Plautius.

47. London founded by A. Plautius.

50. Defeat and capture of Caractacus. Taken prisoner to Rome.

54. Nero emperor.

61. Insurrection of the Britons under Boadicea. Victory of Suetonius Paulinus.

64. Rome on fire six days. Persecution of Christians.

65 (?). Deaths of St Peter and St Paul. Death of Seneca.

66. Jewish war begins, conducted by Vespasian.

68. Galba emperor.

69. Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, emperors.

70. Fall of Jerusalem, taken by Titus.

71. The Gate of Janus closed. Triumph of Vespasian and Titus. The philosophers expelled from Rome between 71-75.

78. Agricola commands in Britain.

79. Titus emperor. Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed by eruption of Vesuvius. Death of Pliny the Elder.

80. Advance of Agricola to the Tay.

81. Domitian emperor.

84. Agricola defeats the Caledonians, and sails round Britain.

86. Dacian war begins.

90. The philosophers again expelled from Rome.

95. Persecution of Christians. St John banished to Patmos.

96. Nerva emperor.

98. Trajan. Plutarch flourishes.

103-107. Subjugation of Dacia, &c.

114-117. Trajan’s expedition to the East.

117. Hadrian emperor. Conquests of Trajan abandoned. The Euphrates made the eastern frontier of the empire.

120. Hadrian visits Gaul and Britain. Hadrian’s wall built, 121.

130. Birth of Galen (died, 200).

132-135. Second Jewish war,— Barchochebas leader of the Jews

138. Antoninus Pius emperor. The empire at peace.

139. Conquests of Lollius Urbicus in Britain. Wall of Antoninus (Graham’s Dyke) built.

161. Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus joint emperors.

163. Persecution of Christians.

166. Martyrdom of Polycarp.

167-178. War with the Marcomanni, Quadi, &c.

169. Death of Verus. Μ. Aurelius sole emperor.

180. Commodus.

183. Successes of Ulpius Marcellus in Britain. Commodus takes the name Britannicus, 184.

185. Birth of Origen (died, 253).

190-214. Tertullian flourished.

193. Pertinax emperor, murdered. Didius Julianus buys the empire. His rivals, Pescennius Niger and Septimius Severus.

194. Severus emperor alone.

196. Capture of Byzantium after three years’ siege by Severus.

197. The Quartodeciman controversy.

198. Caracalla named Augustus.

202. Persecution of Christians.

208. Expedition of Severas to Britain:—invasion of Caledonia, 209; his wall completed, 210.

211. Death of Severus at York. Caracalla and Ge ta emperors. Geta murdered, 212.

214. First contact of the Romans with the Alamanni, German tribes on the upper Rhine.

217. Macrinus emperor. 218. Elagabalus emperor.

222. Alexander Severus emperor.

226. Dissolution of Parthian empire. Foundation of the new Persian monarchy (kingdom of the Sassanidae) by Ardshir (Artaxerxes).

231. Persian war begins.

233. Triumph of Severus; murdered and succeeded by Maximin, 235.

236. Persecution of Christians.

238. The Gordiani, Pupienus and Balbinus (jointly), and Gordianus III. emperors.

242. Gordianus defeats Sapor, king of Persia.

244. Gordianus murdered and succeeded by Philip the Arabian.

249. Decius emperor. 250. His edict for persecution of Christians published. First invasion of the empire by the Goths. Death of Decius and his son in the campaign of 251.

251. Gallus emperor.

252. Pestilence begins, and lasts fifteen years.

253. Irruption of Goths and Burgundians into Moesia and Pannonia. First appearance of the Franks in Gaul about this time.

254. Valerian emperor. His son Gallienus associated with him. Persecution of Christians. ,

258. Trapezus taken by Goths.

259. Sapor ravages Syria. Valerian taken prisoner.

260. Gallienus sole emperor. The Thirty Tyrants, between 260 and 268.

262. The Goths in Macedonia and Asia Minor. They destroy the temple of Ephesus. Antioch taken by Sapor.

263. The Franks invade Gaul.

267. The Heruli invade Greece, and are repulsed by Dexippus.

268. Claudius emperor. 269. He defeats the Goths in Moesia.

270. Aurelian emperor. Victories over the Goths and the Alamanni.

272. Expedition of Aurelian to Palmyra.

273. Capture of Palmyra and of Queen Zenobia.

275. Tacitus emperor. 276. Probus emperor.

277. Probus drives the Alamanni from Gaul.

282. Caras emperor. Expedition to the East.

284. Diocletian emperor. 286. Maximian joint emperor with him. Revolt of Carausius in Britain.

289. Victory of Carausius over Maximian.

292. Constantius and Galerius named Caesars. Division of the empire.

296. Britain recovered by Constantius.

297. Siege of Alexandria by Diocletian. Persian war.

298. Constantius defeats the Alamanni near Langres. Defeat of Narses.

303. Persecution of Christians by Diocletian.

305. Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian. Constantius and Galerius emperors. Beginning of monasticism in Egypt under St Antony.

306. Death of Constantius at York. Proclamation of Constantine (the Great).

307. Revolt of Maxentius. Six emperors. Elevation of Licinius.

311. Edict of Nicomedia to stop the persecution.

312. Defeat and death of Maxentius.

313. Defeat and death of Maximian. Edict of Milan, by Constantine and Licinius, for general religious toleration.

314. War between the two emperors.

323. Constantine sole emperor.

324. Foundation of Constantinople; dedicated as capital of the empire, 330 (or 334).

325. First General Council of the Church meets at Nicaea.

326. Athanasius, patriarch of Alexandria. Controversy with Arius.

336. Death of Arius.

337. Constantine IL, Constans, and Constantius II. jointemperors. 338. Death of Eusebius.

347. Synod of Sardica.

348. Ulfilas bishop of the Goths (died, 388).

350-353. Revolt of Magnentius. Defeated by Constantius.

357. Victory of Julian over the Alamanni at Argentoratum (Strasburg).

361. Julian emperor;.his edict recalling the banished bishops and granting general toleration published, 362.

363. Persian war. Julian killed. Jovian emperor.

364. Valentinian and Valens joint emperors. Final division of the empire.

367-369. Theodosius in Britain; aids against Picts and Scots.

370. The Saxons land on coasts of Gaul.

373. Death of Athanasius.

375. War with the Quadi. Gratian emperor of the West, with Valentinian II. Invasion of the Huns.

376. Valens allows the Goths to settle in Thrace.

378. Constantinople threatened by Goths.

379. Theodosius the Great emperor of the East.

381. Second General Council, held at Constantinople. Pagan rites prohibited.

382. Alaric king of the Goths.

383. Revolt of Maximus in Britain.

390. Final suppression of Paganism. Massacre at Thessalonica. Death of Gregory of Nazianzus.

393. Honorius emperor of the West.

394. Theodosius master of the whole Roman world.

395. Death of Theodosius. Arcadius emperor of the East. The Huns invade the eastern provinces. Augustine made bishop of Hippo (died, 430). Alaric in Greece. Stilicho attains chief power under Honorius.

396. The Britons ask aid of Honorius against Pic⅛ and Scots.

397. Deaths of Martin of Tours and Ambrose of Milan.

398. Chrysostom bishop of Constantinople (died, 407).

400. Alaric ravages Italy.

403. Battle of Pollentia,—defeat of Alaric by Stilicho.

406. The Vandals, Alani, and Suevi invade Gaul.

408. Theodosius II. emperor of the East. Stilicho slain at Ravenna.

409. The Vandals, Alani, and Suevi invade Spain.

410. Sack of Rome by Alaric. Death of Alarie. Pelagius begins to preach about this time.

411. The Roman legions recalled from Britain; final withdrawal, about 418.

414. Marriage of Ataulphus, king of the Goths, to Placidia, daughter of Theodosius the Great Persecution of Christians in Persia begins; lasts thirty years.

420. Death of St Jerome.

423. Death of Honorius at Ravenna.

425. Administration of Aetius begins, lasting about thirty years.

428. Nestorius patriarch of Constantinople (banished, 435).

429. The Vandals under Genseric invade Africa. Death of Theodore bishop of Mopsuestia.

431. Third General Council held at Ephesus.

433. Attila king of the Huns.

438. Theodosian Code published.

439. The Vandals surprise Carthage.

440. Leo I. (the Great) bishop of Rome.

442. Treaty of peace between Valentinian and Genseric. Attila in Thrace and Macedonia.

446. Message of the Britons to Aetius for aid against the Saxons.

447. Attila ravages the Eastern empire. Theodosius concludes treaty with Attila.

449. The Robber-Council of Ephesus. Landing of the English in Britain.

450. Death of Theodosius II.

451. Invasion of Gaul by Attila. Victory of Aetius at Châlons. Fourth General Council held at Chalcedon. Monophysite controversy begins.

452. Invasion of Italy by Attila. Foundation of Venice.

453. Death of Attila. Dissolution of his empire.

455. Sack of Rome by Genseric. Intercession of Leo.

457. Hengist founds kingdom of Kent.

461-467. Rule of Ricimer. Severus nominal emperor.

462-472. Conquests of the Visigoths in Spain and Gaul.

465. Great fire at Constantinople.

475. Romulus Augustulus emperor of the West (banished, 476).

476. Odoacer, king of Italy. End of Western empire.

477. Death of Genseric. Lauding of Aella and South Saxons in Britain.

480. Earthquakes at Constantinople, lasted forty days.

482. Clovis, king of the Franks. The Heιwticon of Zeno published.

486. Victory of Clovis over Syagrius at Soissons.

487. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, threatens Constantinople.

489-493. Conquest of Italy by Theodoric.

491. Storming of Anderida by Aella; kingdom of the South Saxons established.

493. Odoacer slain. Theodoric king of Italy.

495. Landing of Cerdic and West Saxons in Britain.

496. Victory of Clovis over Alamanni at Tolbiac. His baptism,

500. Missions of the Nestorians began early in this century.

502-505. Persian war. Siege and recovery of Armida.

507. Victory of Clovis over the Visigoths.

510. Paris made the seat of the Frankish monarchy.

511. Death of Clovis. Partition of his kingdom.

525. Boetius put to death by Theodoric.

525-526. Antioch destroyed by earthquake.

527. Justinian emperor. First edition ofhis Code published, 529.

528. The Benedictine Order founded.

529. Belisarius general of the Eastern armies; defeats the Per*

sians at Dara. Edicts of Justinian against the philosophers, heretics, and pagans.

531. Chosroes king of Persia. Plague begins, which ravages the empire fifty years.

532. The Pandects promulgated by Justinian. Sedition (the Nika} at Constantinople, suppressed by Belisarius.

533-534. Belisarius conquers Gelimer; end of Vandal dominion in Africa.

535-540. The Gothic war.

536. Belisarius takes Rome.

537-538. Siege of Rome by Vitiges.

539. Destruction of Milan by the Goths. The Franks in Italy.

540. Ravenna taken by Belisarius. Antioch taken and plundered by Chosroes.

541. Totila king of the Ostrogoths. Abolition of the consulate by Justinian.

542. Earthquake and plague at Constantinople.

545. Rome besieged by Totila. Peace between Justinian and Chosroes.

546. Rome taken by Totila (recovered by Belisarius, 547). Controversy about the “Three Chapters” begins about this time.

547. Kingdom of Bemicia founded by Ida.

549. Rome again taken by Totila.

550. The empire invaded by Slaves and Huns.

551-2. Reform of the calendar by the Armenians; their era fixed. The silkworm introduced into Europe.

552. Death of Totila. Conquest of Rome by Narses.

553. Fifth General Council held at Constantinople. Defeat and death of Teias, last king of the Goths.

554. Defeat of the Franks and Alamanni by Narses.

556. Great earthquake at Constantinople.

558. Clotaire sole king of the Franks till his death in 561. Embassy of the Avars to Constantinople.

562. Peace for fifty years concluded between Justinian and Chosroes.

565. Deaths of Belisarius and Justinian. Justinus II. emperor. Ethelbert king of Kent.

566-567. The Lombards in alliance with the Avars destroy the kingdom of the Gepidae in Pannonia.

568-571. Conquest of Italy by the Lombards. Exarchate of Ravenna established.

570 or 571. Birth of Mahomet.

572. War begins between the empire and Persia.

576. Tiberius defeats Chosroes at Melitene.

579. Death of Chosroes.

586. Recared, king of the Goths in Spain, converted to the Catholic faith.

590. Gregory I., the Great, bishop of Rome.

591. Maurice emperor of the East restores Chosroes II. to the throne of Persia.

593. Kingdom of Northumbria founded by Ethelfrith.

597. Arrival of Augustine in England (died, 605).

599. Reform of church service by Gregory the Great.

602. Supremacy of the bishop of Rome acknowledged by Phocas, emperor of the East. Canterbury, seat of archbishopric.

604. See of London founded.

610. Mahomet begins to preach at Mecca. Heraclius emperor of the East.

614. Damascus and Jerusalem taken by the Persians.

615. Death of St Columban.

616. Invasion of Egypt by Persians.

622. Flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina (the Hegira). First of six expeditions of Heraclius against the Persians.

623. Battle of Beder, first victory of Mahomet.

626. Siege of Constantinople by Persians and Avars.

628. Death qf Chosroes II. Treaty of peace between Heraclius and Siroes.

629. Visit of Heraclius to Jerusalem.

632. Death of Mahomet. Abu-Bekr succeeds.

634. Victory of Khaled at Ajnadin. Capture of Damascus. Omar third caliph. Aidan bishop of Lindisfarne.

636. Battles of Yermouk and Cadesia. Foundation of Bussorah.

637. Caliph Omar takes Jerusalem. Mosque of Omar founded.

638. Conquest of Syria completed by Amrou.

639-640. Invasion of Egypt and capture of Alexandria. Ecthxsis of Heraclius published and condemned by the bishop of Rome. Monothelite controversy.

611. Death of Heraclius.

642. Theodorus pope of Rome; the first called “sovereign pontiff.”

647. First invasion of Africa by the Saracens.

648. Capture of Cyprus.

651. Yezdegerd, last king of Persia, killed by Turks. Death of Aidan, bishop of Lindisfarne.

653 Conquest of Rhodes by Moawiyah; the Colossus destroyed. The Pope, Martin I., goes to Constantinople and is imprisoned by the emperor Constans II.

654. Siege of Constantinople by Moawiyah.

655. Penda, king of Mercia, defeated and killed by Oswy of Northumbria. Conversion of Mercia.

658. The emperor Constans II. makes peace with Moawiyah.

663. Constans II. received by Pope Vitalian at Rome.

664. Council of Whitby. Caedmon, the great English poet. Wilfrid archbishop of York.

667. Siege of Constantinople by Yezid.

668. Theodore archbishop of Canterbury.

670. Kairwan founded.

672. Siege of Constantinople by Sofien ben Aouf; the attack repeated yearly for seven years; “Greek fire ’’ used.

678. Wilfrid driven from his see; preaches to the Frisians.

680. Sixth General Council held at Constantinople.

685. Justinian II. emperor of the East.

687. Death of Cuthbert, bishop of Lindisfarne.

688. Ina king of Wessex. Pepin d’Héristal (mayor of the palace) sole ruler of France (died, 714). Bulgarian war.

690. Death of Archbishop Theodore.

692-698. Carthage reduced, pillaged, and burnt by Saracens.

697. Doge of Venice first elected for life.

699 (690 ?). Death of Benedict Biscop.

709. Death of Wilfrid.

710. First invasion of Spain by the Saracens; conquest by Tarik; fall of Roderic, 711-713.

714. Charles Martel rules France as mayor of the palace. Toledo taken by Tarik.

716. Leo the Isaurian emperor. Siege of Constantinople by Saracens. The Bulgarians conclude a commercial treaty with Theodosius III.

718. Mission of Boniface in Germany.

719. Narbonne taken by Saracens.

721. Invasion of France by Saracens.

723. Conquest of Sardinia by Saracens.

726. Death of Ina king of Wessex. First edict of Leo III. (The Iconoclast) against image-worship. Siege of Nicaea by the Saracens.

728. Ravenna taken by the Lombards (retaken by Eutychius, 729).

732. Battle of Tours,—victory of Charles Martel over the Saracens.

735. Death of the Venerable Bede.

740. Great earthquake at Constantinople, in Thrace, and in Bithynia.

741. Death of Charles Martel.

744. Abbey of Fulda founded by Boniface.

746. Great earthquake in Syria. The plague for three years in Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor.

747. The plague at Constantinople.

750. The dynasty of the 0mmiades (caliphs) overthrown; the Abbasides succeed.

751. The Exarchate of Ravenna conquered by the Lombards under Astolphus. End of the dominion of the Eastern emperors in Central Italy.

752. The Merovingian line ends with deposition of Childeric III. Pepin (Le Bref}, founder of Carlovingian line, is crowned at Soissons by Boniface. Stephen "II. pope of Rome.

754. Council of Constantinople condemns images, pictures, and the crucifix, and proscribes the art of painting.

755. Grant of Exarchate of Ravenna and the Pentapolis to the Pope, by Pepin. Beginning of the temporal power. Siege of Rome by Astolphus. Death of Boniface, apostle of Germany.

756. Cordova made seat of western caliphate by Abdelrahman I.

757. Rout of the Bulgarians by the emperor Constantine V.

763. Foundation of Baghdad, seat of the caliphate. Winter of 763-764, the Bosphorus and the Euxine frozen.

766. The imperial fleet destroyed by storm on the Euxine.

768. Charles the Great (Charlemagne) and Carloman kings of thβ-Franks. Charles alone, 772.

770. Charles marries the daughter of Desiderius, last king of the· Lombards.

771. Charles repudiates his wife and marries Hildegards.

774. Overthrow of the Lombard kingdom by Charles the Great.

778. His expedition to Spain; battle of Roncesvalles.

780. Image-worship re-established by the empress Irene

782. Massacre of the Saxons by Charles.

785. Haroun Alraschid caliph of Baghdad.

787. Seventh General Council, second of Nicaea, re-establishes image-worship. First landing of Northmen (Danes) in England.

794. Charles holds a great council at Frankfort.

797-802. Irene sole empress.

800. Charles the Great crowned emperor of the Romans by Popo Leo III. Extinction of supremacy of Byzantine emperors at Rome. Egbert, king of the West Saxons.

801. Death of Paulus Diaconus.

802. The Athanasian Creed authoritatively imposed by Charles.

803. Limits of the two empires settled by treaty between Charle⅛ and Nicephorus. Massacre of the Barmecides by Haroun Alraschi<L 804. Death of Alcuin (born about 735).

809. Death of Haroun Alraschid.

814. Death of Charles the Great. Louis le Débonnaire emperor of the Romans and king of France.

816-837. Eginhard, historian of Charles the Great, flourished.

816. Coronation of Louis and his wife Heπnengarda by the Pope at Rheims.

822. Louis does public penance at Diet of Attigny.

823. Conquest of Crete and foundation of Candia by Saracens. Ebbo missionary to the Northmen about this time.

826. Anschar, apostle of the North, begins teaching in Denmark.

827. Egbert overlord of all the English kingdoms. Collection made of the capitularies of Charles the Great and Louis. The Almagest of Ptolemy translated into Arabic by command of Caliph Almamun.

831. The doctrine of transubstantiation .maintained by Paschasius Radbert. Controverted by Rabanus Maurus.

833. Louis does public penance at Soissons.

835. Festival of All Saints instituted about this time.

836. Ethelwulf king of Wessex.

840. Lothaire emperor. Charles II. (the Bald) king of France.

841. Rouen pillaged by Northmen.

842. Piast chosen duke of Poland. Final establishment of image worship by council of Constantinople.

843. The Picts subdued by Kenneth Μ‘Alpin. Treaty of Verdun. Division of dominions of Louis among his three sons.

845. Persecution of Paulicians by Empress Theodora. Paris threatened by Northmen.

846, 847. Rome threatened by the Saracens.

849. Birth of Alfred the Great. Persecution of Gottschalk by Hincmar.

850-870. Joannes Scotus Erigena flourished.

851. Great victory of Ethelwulf over the Northmen at Ockley.

855. Louis (of Bavaria) emperor.

857. Photius patriarch of Constantinople.

860. Foundation of kingdom of Navarre about this time.

862. Reputed foundation of Russian monarchy by Rurik. Photius excommunicated by the Pope.

862-868. Preaching of Methodius and Cyrillus in Moravia.

865. First expedition of Russians to Constantinople. South Italy ravaged by Saracens. The forged Decretals (Isidorian) adopted by Pope Nicholas I. about this time.

867. Photius excommunicates the Pope. Basilius I. emperor of the East.

868. Photius deposed by council at Rome.

869-870. Eighth General Council, held at Constantinople.

871. Alfred king of Wessex.

874. Norwegian settlement in Iceland.

875. Charles (the Bald) crowned emperor at Rome.

877. Louis II. (the Stammerer) king of France. Syracuse taken by Saracens.

878. The Danes defeated by Alfred. Peace of Wedmore.

880. Methodius permitted by the Pope to celebrate divine service in the vernacular tongue (Slavonian).

881. A1bategni begins his astronomical observations about this time and continues them till 918. Charles III. (the Fat) emperor (deposed 887).

885. The Northmen under Rolf overrun Neustria (settled there by treaty with Charles the Simple, 91’2).

886. Siege of Paris by the Northmen. Leo VI. (the Philosopher) emperor of the East.

891. Death of Photius in exile.

894. Siege of Rome by Arnulph, king of Germany, who is crowned emperor, 896.

.896. Exhumation of the body of Pope Formosus by order of Stephen VI.; trial, condemnation, and degradation of Formosus; his body thrown into the Tiber; the proceedings quashed by John IX., 898.

898. Charles (the Simple) king of France.

899. Louis IV. emperor,—last of the Carlovingian line.

900. Palermo sacked by Saracens.

901. Edward the Elder king of Wessex.

904. Thessalonica taken by Saracens. Second expedition of Russians to Constantinople.

907. End of the Tang dynasty in China.

908. Theodora mistress of Rome; she occupies the castle of St Angelo.

909. Abu Obeidallah, first of the Fatimite caliphs of Egypt.

910. The congregation of Cluny founded.

911. Conrad, duke of Franconia, elected emperor.

913. Constantine VII. (Porphyrogenitus) emperor of the East.

915. Berenger, king of Italy, crowned emperor by Pope John X.

917. Defeat of Byzantine army by Bulgarians at Achelous.

918. Henry the Fowler, duke of Saxony, elected king of Germany.

925. Athelstan king of the West Saxons.

926 (c⅝rcα). Laws of Howel Dda sanctioned by Pope Anastasius.

929. Mecca pillaged by the Karmathians

934. Victory of Henry the Fowler over Hungarians at Merseburg.

936. Louis IV. (D ’ Outremer), king of France. Otto I., kin»· of Germany.

937. Victory of Athelstan at Brunanburh.

940. Edmund king of Wessex.

941. Third expedition of Russians to Constantinople.

943. Dunstan made abbot of Glastonbury, and chief minister to Edmund.

946. Edred king of Wessex. First embassy of Liutprand to Constantinople.

951. Otto I. proclaimed k⅛g of Italy; Berenger driven away.

954. Lothaire king of France.

955. Victory of Otto over Hungarians in Bavaria. Edwig king of Wessex.

956. Banishment of Dunstan. Death of Hugh the Great, count of Paris.

958. Edgar king of Mercia; crowned at Bath, 973, and rowed by eight vassal kings on the Dee.

959. Dunstan archbishop of Canterbury. Italy ravaged by Berenger. Hugh Capet declared duke of France by Lothaire.

960. The Sung dynasty in China founded.

962. Otto I. crowned emperor of the Romans by Pope John XII.

963. Deposition of the Pope by Otto. Nicephorus Phocas emperor of the East.

963-975. Eastern conquests of Nicephorus Phocas and John Zimisces.

964. Revolt at Rome,—return of John XII. Rome taken by Otto.

965. Second embassy of Liutρrand to Constantinople; his im« pιisonment by Phocas.

967. Magdeburg made seat of archbishopric by Otto I.

969. John I. (Zimisces) emperor of the East.

970. Settlement of Paulicians at Philippopolis. '.

973. Otto II. emperor of the Romans.

974. Pope Benedict VI. strangled at Rome.

975. Edward the Martyr king of England (murdered, 979).

976. Basilius II. (Bulgaroktonos) emperor of the East.

979. Ethelred the Unready king of England.

980 (circa). Birth of Avicenna (died, 1036). Crescentius master of Rome.

983. Otto III. king of Germany. Greenland colonized from Iceland.

986. Louis V. (le Fainéant) king of France,—last of the Carlovingian line.

987. Hugh Capet, founder of Capetian line, king of France.

988. Death of Dunstan. The Greek ritual introduced into Russia.

990 (circa). Invention of the balance-clock attributed to Gerbert (afterwards Pope Sylvester II.)

993. Earliest instance on record of canonization of a saint.

996. Robert the Wise king of France. Otto III. crowned emperor at Rome.

998. France laid under interdict. Crescentius besieged in Rome and put to death by Otto III.

999. Sylvester II. (Gerbert) pope.

1000. The emperor Otto III. makes a pilgrimage to the tomb of St Adalbert at Gnesne, founds archbishopric of Gnesne, and erects Poland into a kingdom for Duke Boleslas. The Pope, Sylvester IL, erects Hungary into a kingdom for Duke Stephen, apostle of Hungary.

1001. First invasion of India by Mahmud of Ghazni. Insurrection at Rome against Otto III.

1002. Henry II. king of Germany. Massacre of the Danes in England.

1003. John XVII. pope, three months. John XVIII. pone (abdicates, 1009).

1009. Sergius IV. pope.

1010. Conquest of Ghor by Mahmud in fourth invasion of India.

1012. Benedict VIII. pope.

1013. Submission of all England to Sweyn, king of Denmark.

1014. Battle of Clontarf—defeat of Danes by Brian Boroimhe. Henry II. crowned emperor.

1016. Edmund Ironside king of England. First appearance of the Normans in Italy.

1017. Canute king of England. Bulgaria made a province of the empire. Canouj taken by Mahmud.

1020. Death of Firdusi, the Persian poet.

1024. Conrad II. emperor. John XIX. (XX.) pope. Twelfth expedition of Mahmud to India; capture of Somnauth.

1025 (circa). Invention of musical notation by Guido Aretino.

1027. Birth of William of Normandy. Pilgrimage of Canute to Rome.

1029. Foundation of Aversa by the Normans.

1030. Death of Mahmud of Ghazni.

1031. Henry I. king of France. Fall of the caliphate of Cordova.

1033. Benedict IX. pope.

1035. Death of Sancho the Great of Navarre; division of his states. Foundation of the kingdoms of Castile and Araeon.

1038. The Turkmans defeat the Ghaznivides and conquer Persia. Foundation of the Seljukian dynasty.

1039. Henry III. emperor. Macbeth murders Duncan, king of Scots, and succeeds him. Conquest of Persia by Togrul Beg.

1040-1043. Conquest of Apulia by the Nonnans.

1042. Edward the Confessor king of England. Restoration of English line.

1043. Fourth expedition of Russians against Constantinople.

1044. Silvester III. pope three months. Gregory VI. buys the papacy.

1046. Council of Sutri; the consent of the emperor declared essential to the election of the pope; the emperor deposes three popes, appoints Clement II., and is crowned by him.

1047. Victory of William of Normandy over the baronage at Val- ⅛s-dunes.

1048. Damasus II. pope three weeks, said to be the first pope crowned. Invasion of the Eastern empire by the Seljukian Turks.

1049. Leo IX. pope. Intrigues of Hildebrand at his election. League of the pope and the two emperors against the Normans in Sicily.

1050. Condemnation of Berengar at councils of Rome and Vercelli. Hildebrand created cardinal.

1052. Visit of William the Norman to England. Death of Earl God wine. The Pope and the emperor celebrate Christmas at Worms.

1053. The Pope taken prisoner by Robert Guiscard, at the battle of Civitella (June 16). Open rnptnre of Greek and Latin churches.

1054. Macbeth defeated by Earl Siward at Dunsinane (slain, 1056). Michael Cerularius, patriarch of Constantincpie, assumes the title of Universal Patriarch. The Pope and the Patriarch excommunicate each other.

1055. Victor II. pope. Togrul Beg takes Baghdad, and rescues the caliph from his enemies.

1056. Henry IV. emperor.

1057. Malcolm III. (Canmore) king of Scotland. Stephen IX. pope.

1058. Nicholas II. pope. Peter Damiani created cardinal (died, 1072).

1059. Election of the Pope vested in the College of Cardinals by bull of Nicholas II. Robert Guiscard made duke of Apulia and gonfaloniere of the church.

1060. Philip I. king of France.

1060-1090. Conquest of Sicily by the Normans under Count Roger.

1061. Alexander II. pope. Honorius II. anti-pope.

1062. Lanfranc abbot of Caen.

1063. Death of Togrul Beg·

1066. Harold II. king of England. His victory over Harold Hardrada and Tostig at Stamford Bridge, Sept. 25. Victory of William the Norman at Senlac (Hastings), Oct. 14. Norman conquest of England begins.

1068-71. Siege and capture of Bari by the Normans. End of Byzantine dominion in Italy.

1070. Lanfranc archbishop of Canterbury.

1071. Alp Arslan, Seljuk sultan, defeats and takes prisoner the emperor Romanus IV. at Manzikert.

1072. Palermo taken by Robert Guiscard. Malek Shah sultan of Persia.

1073. Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) pope.

1074-1084. Conquest of Asia Minor by the Turks.

1075. Disputes about investitures begin.

1076. Jerusalem taken by the' Turks. Earthquake in England. Matilda countess of Tuscany (the Great Countess). Henry IV. deposes the Pope at Council of Worms. The Pope, at Council of Rome, deposes Henry and absolves his subjects from allegiance,—the first sentence of the kind. Henry is again excommunicated, 1078 and 1080.

1077. Submission of the emperor to the Pope at Canossa. London burnt. Secret gift of her states by Countess Matilda to the Holy See.

1079. The New Forest formed by William the Conqueror. Birth of Abelard. Reform of the Calendar ordered by Malek Shah.

1080. The duchy of Swabia given to Frederick of Hohenstauffen by the emperor Henry IV. Interdict laid on Poland, and title of king suppressed by the Pope. Anti-pope Clement III. set up by the emperor. Victory of the emperor over his rival Rudolf of Swabia.

1081. Capture and sack of Constantinople by Alexius Comnenus, April 1. Alexius crowned emperor, April 2. Battle of Durazzo,— defeat of the emperor Alexius by Robert Guiscard.

1082. Siege, of Rome by the Emperor Henry begins; the city taken, 1084.

1084. Gregory VΠ. besieged in Sant-Angelo by the emperor; delivered, and Rome pillaged by Robert Guiscard. Carthusian order founded by Bruno.

1085. Toledo taken from the Arabs by Alphonso VI. of Castile. Death of Robert Guiscard. Death of Gregory VII.

1086. Domesday Book completed. Victor III. pope. The Moors under Josef ben Taxfyn enter Spain to aid the Saracens. Battle of Zalaca,—defeat of Alphonso VI.

1087. William II. (Rufus) king of England.

1088. Urban II. pope. The Almoravides predominant in Spain.

1089. Death of Lanfranc (born about 1005).

1091. Birth of St Bernard. Mantua taken by the emperor.

1092. Death of Sultan Malek Shah, and division of the Seljukian empire. Foundation of the order of Knights Hospitallers (knights of St John of Jerusalem, knights of Malta), about this time (?). Roscelin found guilty of heresy at Council of Soissons.

1093. Anselm archbishop of Canterbury.

1095. Council of Clermont. Preaching of Peter the Hermit. The first crusade proclaimed. Excommunication of Philip king of France and his wife Bertrada by the Pope.

1097. Siege of Nicaea. Battle of Dorylaeum. Edessa taken by crusaders and erected into a principality. Westminster Hall built about this time. ∙

1098. Siege and capture of Antioch, which is made a principality for Bohemond. The Cistercian order founded. Edgar king of Scotland.

1099. Pascal II. pope. Siege and capture of Jerusalem by crusaders. Godfrey of Bouillon elected king. Battle of Ascalon.

1100. William the Red slain in the New Forest. Henry I. king of England. Woollen manufacture introduced in England by the Flemings about this time. Knights of St John settled in England.

1101. Invasion of England by Robert duke of Normandy. Roger II. (Guiscard), the Great, count of Sicily.

1102. Disputes between Henry I. and Archbishop Anselm about investitures. The emperor excommunicated by Pope Pascal II. Preaching of Peter Bruys against prevalent superstitions, for about twenty years, probably between 1100 and 1130.

1105. Invasion of Normandy by Henry I. The emperor Henry IV. dethroned by his son Henry V.; excommunicated and deprived of imperial dress.

1106. Henry V. emperor. Battle of Tinchebrai; Henry I. of England defeats and captures Robert of Normandy, and conquers the duchy.

1107. Alexander I. king of Scotland. Bohemond invades the Eastern empire.

1108. Louis VI. (Ze Gros) king of France. Treaty of peace between Alexius and Bohemond.

1109. Tripoli in Syria taken by crusaders and erected into a county.

1110. Marriage of Maud daughter of Henry I. to the emperor Henry V. Treaty between the emperor and the Pope respecting investitures concluded at Milan.

1111. The emperor arrests the Pope; obtains a bull respecting investitures; releases the Pope, and is crowned by him at Rome. The emperor received at Canossa by the Countess Matilda; names her his vice-regent in Lombardy.

1112. Council of Vienne; excommunicates the emperor.

1113. Bernard becomes a monk of Cîtcaux. Peace of Gisors.

1114. Thurstan, archbishop of York, refuses consecration from archbishop of Canterbury.

1115. Bernard founds Clairvaux. Death of Matilda countess of Tuscany.

1116. March of the emperor into Italy to take possession of states of the countess. Council of the Lateran revokes the privilege of investitures conceded to the emperor.

1117-1120. Henry I. in Normandy. War with France and the earls of Anjou and Flanders.

1118. Order of Knights Templars founded. Gelasius II. pope, January 19. His seizure by the Frangipani, January 24. Appointment or anti-pope Gregory VIII. by the emperor. John IL Comnenus emperor of the East. Abelard teaches at Paris.

1119. Calixtus II. pope. Cistercian order re-constituted by Stephen Harding.

1120. Wreck of the White Ship, and death of William, son of Henry I. Premonstrateusian order founded by St Norbert.

1121. Council of Soissons compels Abelard to burn his book on the Trinity.

1122. Concordat of Worms. The dispute about investitures settled by the emperor’s renunciation. Abelard founds the Paraclete.

1123. Ninth General Council (first of the Lateran). Confirmation of the settlement between the Pope and the emperor.

1124. The emperor invades France, but retires before Louis VI. Honorius II. pope. David I. king of Scotland.

1125. Lothaire II. king of Germany; opposed by Conrad, duke of Swabia, and Frederick, duke of Franconia.

1126. Visit of David of Scotland to Henry I.

1127. Roger, the great Count, recognized as duke of Apulia and Calabria. He carries on war with the Pope and is excommunicated, but obtains investiture the next year. Marriage of Geoffrey of Anjou with Maud, daughter of Henry I.

1128. Death of William of Normandv, count of Flanders.

1129. Henry of Blois made bishop of Winchester. Earthquake in England.

1130. Innocent II. pope. Anacletus II. anti-pope. Roger IL, count of Sicily, receives title of king from Anacletus, and makes Palermo his capital. Abbey-church of Cluny consecrated by Innocent II. Conference between Innocent and Lothaire at Liège; St Bernard present. Heloise becomes abbess of the Paraclete.

1131. Death of Baldwin IL, king of Jerusalem; Fulk of Anjou, his son-in-law, succeeds.

1133. Innocent II. re-established at Rome by Lothaire. Lothaire crowned emperor by the Pope, who is again expelled by Anacletus. Count Roger takes the title of king of Sicily.

1134. Death of Alphonso I., king of Navarre and Aragon, and separation of the kingdoms. Arnold of Brescia begins to preach about this time.

1135. Death of Robert IL, duke of Normandy, in Cardiff Castle. Stephen (of Blois) king of England.

1137. Louis VIL (le Jeune) king of France, married to Eleanor of Guienne before his accession. King Roger driven out of Italy by Lothaire. Death of Lothaire. Pandects of Justinian discovered at Amalfi. Birth of Saladin.

1138. Conrad III. emperor. Roger king of Sicily takes the Pope prisoner, and compels him to confirm him in his kingdom. Death of Anacletus, and end of the schism. David, king of Scotland, invades England, and is defeated at the battle of the Standard (Northallerton). Civil war in England between adherents of Stephen and Maud.

1139. Portugal erected into a kingdom for Count Alphonso Henriquez. Malachy, bishop of Connaught, visits Clairvaux and Rome. Tenth General Council (second of the Lateran). Arnold of Brescia condemned and banished from Italy. Henry of Blois, bishop of Winchester, papal legate in England.

1140. Council of Sens, Bernard gets Abelard condemned. Abelard appeals to the Pope. Feast of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin introduced.

1141. Interdict laid on France by Innocent II. King Stephen taken prisoner by Robert of Gloucester at the battle of Lincoln. Maud received as “Lady of England.” Winchester burnt.

1142. Maud besieged in Oxford by Stephen. Death of Abelard. Henry the Lion duke of Saxony.

1143. Manuel Comnenus emperor of the East. Celestine II. pope. On submission of Louis VII. the interdict on France is raised.

1144. Lucius II. pope; he concludes a treaty with Roger of Sicily. The primacy of the church of Toledo confirmed by the Pope.

1145. Maud withdraws from England. Conquests of Noureddiu, sultan of Aleppo. Eugenius III. pope.

1146. Second Crusade proclaimed by the Pope; preached by St Bernard. Invasion of Greece by king Roger; Thebes and Corinth plundered. Assembly at Vezelaì; Louis VII. takes the cross. Arnold of Brescia heads insurrection at Rome, and expels the Pope. The Almohades enter Spain.

1147. Suger, abbot of St Denis, appointed regent of France. The Crusaders, ledbyConrad and Louis VII., arrive at Constantinople. St Bernard pleads in behalf of the Jews. Suppression of the Henricians in I>anguedoc.

1148. The Crusaders reach Jerusalem, unsuccessfully besiege Damascus, and return to Europe.

1149. Recovery of Corfu from Saracens by the Emperor Manuel.

1150. Compilation of canon law completed by Gratian (begun by Ivo of Chartres, 1114). Noureddin conquers Edessa. Peter the Lombard writes his Sentences. Large silver terrestrial globe made by Edrisi for Roger of Sicily about this time. Almanac first published by Solomon Jarchi.

1151. Death of Geoffrey of Anjou. Invasion of Hungary by Manuel; peace, 1153.

1152. Eleanor of Guienne, divorced by Louis VII., marries Henry, son of Maud (Henry II. of England). Frederick 1., Barbarossa, emperor of the Romans.

1153. Treaty between Stephen and Henry. Malcolm IV. king of Scotland. Anastasius IV. pope. Death of St Bernard.

1154. Henry II. (Plantagenet line) king of England. Death of Roger of Sicily. Ñoureddin takes Damascus and makes it his capital. Louis VII. marries Constance of Castile. Invasion of Italy by Frederick Barbarossa. Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspeare) the only English pope.

1155. Rome laid under interdict by the Pope. Diet at Roncaglia. Arnold of Brescia banished by the Romans, strangled and burnt by order of the emperor. William I. of Sicily excommunicated and deprived of part of his kingdom by the Pope. Henry II. authorized by the Pope to undertake the conquest of Ireland. Thomas Becket chancellor of England. Coronation of Frederick Barbarossa at Rome.

1156. William of Sicily makes peace with the Pope. The margraviate of Upper Austria erected into a duchy. Death of Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny.

1157. Invasion of Poland by the emperor. The bank of Venice instituted. Munich founded by Henry the Lion. Diet at Besançon.

1158. Invasion of Lombardy by the emperor. Siege of Milan. Diet of Roncaglia. Henry II. visits Louis VII. at Paris.

1159. Expedition of Henry II. against Toulouse. War with France. Alexander III. pope. Victor IV. anti-pope.

1160. Council of Pavia convoked by the emperor for recognition of Victor. Excommunication of the emperor by Alexander. The Albigenses begin to attract attention about this time. Condemnation and branding of German heretics at Oxford.

1161. Peace between England and France. Pope Alexander III. received by the two kings.

1162. Destruction of Milan by the emperor. Becket archbishop of Canterbury; he resigns the chancellorship. Gilbert Foliot bishop of London.

1163. Hungarian war renewed by Manuel.

1164. The Constitutions of Clarendon subscribed. Council of Northampton. Flight of Becket. Becket at Sens and at Pontigny. Banishment of Becket’s friends by Henry II. Third invasion of Lombardy by the emperor. Pascal III. anti-pope.

1165. William I., the Lion, king of Scotland.

1166. Zeugmin stormed by Manuel. Becket at Vezelai excommunicates his enemies. Fourth invasion of Italy by the emperor.

1167. War between Henry and Louis till 1169. The Lombard League formed. The League defeats the emperor at Legnano.

1168. Calixths III. anti-pope. Victory of Manuel over Hungarians at Zeugmin. End of the war. The Lombard League put to the ban by the emperor.

1169. Meeting of Henry and Louis at Montmirail respecting Becket. Excommunication of Gilbert Foliot, bishop of London, by Becket. Invasion of Ireland by Strongbow. Another meeting of Henry and Louis at St Denis.

1170. Formal reconciliation of Henry II. and Archbishop Thomas at Freteval. Assassination of the archbishop at Canterbury, Dec. 29. Birth of St Dominic. Peter Waldo begins preaching at Lyons about this time.

1171. Henry II. invades Ireland, and is acknowledged king at Council of Cashel. Conquest of Egypt by Shiracouh and Saladin, generals of Ñoureddin. End of the Fatimite caliphs. War between Manuel and the Venetians till 1174.

1172. Absolution of Henry II. at Council of Avranches.

1173. Civil war stirred up by the king’s sons in England and Normandy. Saladin sultan of Egypt. Canonization of Archbishop Thomas by Alexander III.

1174. Canonization of Bernard by Alexander III. Fifth invasion of Italy by the emperor. Siege of Alexandria. Henry II. does penance at the tomb of St Thomas of Canterbury, July 12. William the Lion captured at Alnwick by Ranulph de Gian ville, July 12; he is released after doing homage to Henry for the kingdom. Damascus taken by Saladin.

1175. The bull of Adrian IV. promulgated in Ireland. The Scottish prelates refuse canonical obedience to the archbishop of York.

1176. Victory of the Milanese over Frederick at Legnano (Como). Great Council at Northampton; the six circuits of the judges established. The Carthusian order approved by the Pope. Victory ot Kilidy Arslan, sultan of Iconium, over Manuel at Myriokephalon. John of Salisbury bishop of Chartres.

1177. Earl John named Lord of Ireland; the country partitioned for completion of the conquest. Meeting of the Pope and the emperor at Venice; absolution of the emperor. Saladin defeated at Ramla by Renaud de Chatillon.

1178. Reconciliation of Henry II. and Louis VII. The heretics of Toulouse excommunicated and banished by the legate. Innocent III. anti-pope.

1179. Eleventh General Council (third of the Lateran). Crusade against the Albigenses sanctioned. Pilgrimage of Louis VII. to the tomb of St Thomas.

1180. Philip IL, Augustus, king of France. Alexius IL, Comnenus, emperor of the East. Henry the Lion, duke of Bavaria, deprived of all his dominions at Diet of Wurzburg. Carthusian monks in England.

1181. William the Lion excommunicated, and Scotland laid under interdict, by Alexander III. Lucius III. pope. First assize of arms in England.

1182. Birth of St Francis. Edessa taken by Saladin. The Jews banished from France.

1183. Treaty of Constance between the emperor and the confederate towns of Italy, confirming their privileges. Amida and Aleppo taken by Saladin. Andronicus I., Comnenus, emperor of the East.

1184. Reconciliation of the sons of Henry II. at Council of London.

1185. Urban III. pope. Thessalonica taken by the Normans. Isaac IL, Angelus, emperor of the East. The crown of Jerusalem offered to Henry II. by the patriarch of Jerusalem and the grand master of the Templars, and refused.

1186. Guy of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem. Revolt of Bulgaria.

Second Bulgarian kingdom founded. Marriage of Henry, king of the Romans, with Constance, heiress of Sicily.

1187. Battle of Tiberias (Hattin),-victory of Saladin over the Christians. Capture of Jerusalem by Saladin. End of the Latin kingdom. Gregory VIII. pope two months. Clement III. Third Crusade.

1188. The Emperor Frederick and the kings of France and England take the Cross. The “Saladin tenth” imposed.

1189. Siege of Acre begun. Frederick sets out on the crusade. Richard I. king of England. Massacre of Jews in London.

1190. The order of Teutonic knights founded. Richard and Philip meet at Vezelai, and set out for the crusade. Tancred king of Sicily. Frederick twice defeats the sultan of Iconium, and takes the city. Frederick drowned in Asia Minor. Henry VI. emperor.

1191. Marriage of Richard I. to Berengaria. Capture of Acre by the Crusaders. Celestine III. pope. Return of Philip to France. Victory of Richard at Arsoof. Naples besieged by the emperor. Coronation of Henry VI. and Constance at Rome. Destruction of Tusculum.

1192. Guy of Lusignan titular king of Cyprus. Jerusalem threatened by Crusaders. Truce with Saladin. Arrest of Richard on his return by Leopold, duke of Austria. Usurpation of Earl John.

1193. Richard before the Diet of Haguenau. Death of Saladin. Marriage of Philip Augustus with Ingeburga of Denmark.

1194. Liberation and return of Richard. Richard defeats Philip at Freteval. Conquest of the Two Sicilies by the emperor, who is crowned king at Palermo. Birth of Frederick IL Llewelyn ap Jorwerth prince of Wales.

1195. Battle of Alarcos,—Alphonso VIII. of Castile defeated by Saracens. Alexius Angelus emperor of the East.

1196. Marriage of Philip Augustus with Agues of Méranie.

1197. Chateau Gaillard built by Richard I.

1198. Innocent III. pope. Philip of Swabia (Hohenstaufien) emperor. War with his rival, Otto of Brunswick. Richard defeats the French at Gisora.

1199. Five years’ truce between England and France by mediation of the Pope. John king of England. His nephew Arthur sup-Sorted by Philip Augustus. Bohemia erected into a kingdom. Iarkwald, general of the emperor Henry VI., twice excommunicated by the Pope.

1200. Universities of Bologna and Paris founded before this time. Interdict laid on France by Pope Innocent III. Marriage of Louis of France to Blanche of Castile. Riga founded. Strife of Guelf and Ghibelline in Florence begins about this time. Layamon writes his Chronicle of Britain (the Brut).

1201. Council of Soissons. Death of Agnes of Méranie.

1202. Fourth Crusade under Baldwin, count of Flanders. Waldemar IL, the Victorious, king of Denmark. War between France and England. Death of Abbot Joachim about this time. Conquest of Sicily (except Messina) by Markwald completed. Death of Markwald. Zara taken by Crusaders.

1203. Capture of Constantinople by Crusaders. Inquisition founded by Innocent III. as commission for conversion of the Albigenses. Murder of Arthur by King John.

1204. Loss and re-capture of Constantinople by Crusaders. Baldwin first Latin emperor of the East. Capture of Château Gaillard and conquest of Normandy from the English by Philip Augustus. Empire of Trebizond erected for Alexius Comnenus.

1205 (1193 ?). Birth of Albertus Magnus (died, 1280). Baldwin I. defeated and taken prisoner by the Bulgarians.

1206. Jenghiz Khan proclaimed sovereign of Mogul and Tatar tribes. Mogul Empire. Theodore Lascaris crowned emperor of Nicaea (elected at Constantinople 1204). Henry of Hainault Latin emperor of the East.

1208. England placed under interdict by Innocent III. Crusade against the Albigenses proclaimed by him. Otto IV. acknowledged emperor after murder of Philip.

1209. Franciscan order founded. King John excommunicated by the Pope. Otto crowned at Rome.

1210. Council of Paris condemns, burns, and forbids reading of Aristotle’s Metaphysics. Alliance of the emperor Henry with the sultan of Iconium against Theodore. Invasion of China by Jenghiz Khan.

1211. Otto excommunicated by the Pope. Pandulph legate in England.

1212. Frederick II. crowned emperor of the Romans. The Children’s Crusade. Battle of Navas de Tolosa,—victory of the kings of Castile, Aragon, and Navarre over the Moors.

1213. King John of England becomes the Pope’s vassal· Second invasion of China by Jenghiz Khan. Battle of Muret.

1214. Birth of Roger Bacon (died, 1294?). Battle of Bouvines, defeat of Emperor Otto IV. by Philip Augustus. Death of William, the Lion, king of Scots; Alexander II. succeeds him.

1215. Siege and capture of Peking (Yen-king) by Jenghiz Khan. The Great Charter signed by King John. Twelfth General Council (fourth of the Lateran). Dominican order founded. Coronation of Frederick II. at Aix-la-Chapelle.

1216. Honorius III. pope. Henry III. king of England. Confirmation of the Great Charter.

1217. Fifth Crusade under Andrew, king of Hungary. Hubert de Burgh justiciary of England. Matthew Paris enters Benedictine order at St Albans (died, 1259). Michael Scot, translator of Aristotle, living at Toledo. Peter of Courtenay emperor of the East. Order of Friar Preachers founded.

1218. Trial by ordeal formally abolished in England. Death of Otto. Battle on the Jaxartes between Jenghiz Khan and the Khar-ismians. Death of Simon de Montfort.

1219. Damietta taken by Crusaders. Robert of Courtenay emperor of the East.

1221. Conquest of Khorassan and Persia by Jenghiz. Dominican and Franciscan friars arrive in England. Birth of Bonaventura (died, 1274). Death of Dominic.

1222. The Golden Bull, basis of Hungarian liberties, signed by Andrew II.

1223. Louis VIII. king of France.

1224. University of Naples founded by Emperor Frederick II. Peter de Vinea chief adviser to Frederick about this time.

1226. Louis IX. (St Louis) king of France. The Lombard League renewed against Frederick II. Death of Francis.

1227. Gregory IX. pope. Birth of Thomas Aquinas (died, 1274). Death of Jenghiz Khan.

1228. Sixth Crusade under Frederick II. Death of Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury. Canonization of Francis by Gregory IX. Baldwin II. emperor of the East; John of Brienne his colleague and guardian during minority, 1229 to 1237.

1229. Treaty between Sultan El Kamel and Frederick II. Jerusalem given up to the Christians. Council of Toulouse establishes the Inquisition in Languedoc.

1231. Translation of the Almagest by command of Frederick II.

1233. Edmund Rich archbishop of Canterbury (died, 1240). Robert Grosseteste bishop of Lincoln (died, 1253). Gregory IX. intrusts the Dominican Order with sole direction of the Inquisition.

1234. Canonization of Dominic by Gregory IX. Promulgation of new code of the Decretals by Gregory.

1235. Isabella of England married to Frederick II. Canonization of Elizabeth of Hungary.

1236. Invasion of Russia and sack of Moscow by Tatars.

1237. Conrad IV. king of the Romans. Battle of Corte Nuova.

1238. Marriage of Simon de Montfort to Eleanor, sister of Henry III.; the earldom of Leicester given to him.

1239. Frederick II. makes his son Enzío king of Sardinia. Herman von Salza grand-master of the Teutonic knights. Moorish kingdom of Granada founded.

1240. Birth of Cimabue (died, 1302). Frederick invades States of the Church; Crusade against him proclaimed. Carmelite monks in England.

1241. Celestine IV. pope; dies before consecration. Death of Waldemar II. of Denmark. Enzio captures Genoese fleet, with cardinals, bishops, &c. Death of Empress Isabella.

1242. Battle of Taillebourg,—St Louis defeats Henry III.

1243. Innocent IV. pope, after nearly two years’ vacancy.

1244. Treaty between the Pope and the emperor.

1245. Thirteenth General Council (first of Lyons).· Deposition of the emperor by the Pope. Death of Alexander of Hales.

1246. Canonization of Archbishop Edmund (Rich) by Innocent IV.

1248. Seventh Crusade under St Louis. Inquisition introduced in Spain. Siege of Parma.

1249. Alexander III. king of Scots. Death of Peter de Vinea. University College, Oxford, founded.

1250. St Louis defeated and captured by the sultan of Egypt; released in a month. Conrad IV. emperor. His claim opposed by William, count of Holland. The Mamelukes become masters of Egypt. Manfred regent of Sicily. College of the Sorbonne founded. Gunpowder probably invented about this time.

1252. Alphonso X. king of Castile. The Alphonsine Tables completed. English laws introduced in Wales.

1253. The Jews expelled from France.

1254. Alexander IV. pope. Birth of Marco Polo (died,· 1324).

1255. Inquisition introduced in France. Königsberg founded by the Teutonic knights. Submission of the Two Sicilies to Manfred.

1257. Richard, earl of Cornwall, and Alphonso X. of Castile rival emperors of the Romans.

1258. Siege and capture of Baghdad by Tatars under Hulaku Khan. Extinction of the caliphate (Abbasides). “Provisions of Oxford” passed by the “Mad Parliament.” Manfred crowned king of Sicily.

1259. Kublai khan of the Moguls. Manfred excommunicated.

1260. Appearance of the Flagellants in Italy. Manfred master of Tuscany.

1261. Urban IV. pope. Manfred again excommunicated.

Capture of Constantinople by Michael Palaeologus. End of Latin empire of the East.

1263. Battle of Largs,—defeat of Norwegians by Alexander III. of Scotland.

1264. Battle of Lewes,—Earl Simon defeats Henry III. and takes him prisoner.

1265. Clement IV. pope. Deputies of the commons sit in the parliament of England. Battle of Evesham,—defeat and death of Earl Simon. Birth of Dante (died, 1321). (i)Birth of Duns Scotus (died, 1308). Manfred, king of Sicily, defeated by Charles of Anjou; defeated again and killed by his rival, 1266. Composition of gunpowder known to Roger Bacen.

1266. Roger Bacon sends his Opus Majus to Pope Clement IV. Sagarelli, leader of the Apostolic Brethren, begins preaching in Parma.

1267. Treaty of Viterbo, between the dethroned emperor Baldwin, Charles of Anjou, and William prince of Achaia.

1268. Edward of England takes the cross at Council of Northampton. Conradin defeated by Charles of Anjou at Tagliacozza and beheaded at Naples.

1269. Pragmatic Sanction, restricting the power of the Pope in France, promulgated by St Louis.

1270. St Louis sets out for the crusade, and dies before Tunis. Philip III., the Bold, king of France. Birth of William of Occam about this time (died about 1350).

1271. Gregory X. pope, after two years’ vacancy. Journey of Marco Polo to the court of Kublai Khan.

1272. Edward I. king of England.

1273. Rudolph of Hapsburg emperor.

1274. Fourteenth General Council (second of Lyons); union of Greek and Roman Churches effected. New regulation of papal election.

1275 ∖ circa). Arabic numerals used in treatise on the Astrolabe by Macha-Allah.

1276. Innocent V., Adrian V., and John XX. (XXL) popes. Birth of Giotto (died, 1337).

1277. Nicholas III. pope.

1279. Statute of Mortmain passed in England.

1280. Conquest of China by Moguls completed.

1281. Martin IV. pope. Treaty of Orvieto, between the Pope, the king of Naples, and Venice, for conquest of the Greek empire.

1282. The “Sicilian Vespers,”—massacre of the French in Sicily; end of Angevine rule. Andronicus II. emperor of the East. Conquest and settlement of Wales by Edward I. Formation of the Zuyder Zee by inundation of the sea. Union of Greek and Roman churches annulled by Andronicus II.

1283. Statute of Rhuddlan (Statute of Wales) enacted. Conquest of Prussia by Teutonic knights completed.

1284. Charles of Anjou defeated and captured bv Roger de Loria, grand admiral of Sicily.

1285. Honorius IV. pope. Philip IV.. the Bold, king of France. Death of Charles of Anjou.

1286. Margaret of Norway queen o. Scots; a regency during her minority. Sagarelli banished from Parma.

1288. Nicholas IV. pope.

1289. Marriage-treaty of Pπnce Edwarι-of England and Margaret queen of Scots concluded. Dante present at battle of Campaldino.

1290. Expulsion of Jews from England by Edward I. Death of Margaret of Norway on her way to Scotland. Edward I. appointed arbitrator between Baliol and Bruce, competitors for the Scottish crown, 1291.

1291. Capture of Acre by Malek al Aschraf, sultan of Egypt. Final loss of the Holy Land. Conference of Edward I. with northern barons at Norham. Beginnings of Swiss conf eration. Seizure and imprisonment of Italian bankers in France.

1292. Adolphus of Nassau em∣>eror. John (Baliol) king of Scots. He does homage to Edward I. at Newcastle, December 26.

1294. Celestine V. pope, after vacancy of more than two years; abdicates. Boniface VIII. pope, December. Death of Kublai Khan. Masoud IL, last sultan of Iconium, defeated and slain by the Moguls, and the sultanate divided.

1295. Final organization of English parliament. Return of Marco Polo to Venice. Premislas, duke of Poland, crowned king.

1296. Boniface VIII. publishes the bull Clerids laicos, January; republished, August 18. Philip issues an edict prohibiting exportation of gold, silver, provisions, &c., without consent of the Crown, August 17. Boniface publishes a second bull, Ineffabilis, September. Conquest of Scotland by Edward I.; surrender of Baliol; interregnum, 1296-1306. The Persian poet Saadi dies about this time.

1297. Battle of Stirling,—victory of Wallace. St Louis canonized by Boniface VIII. The Great Charter confirmed by Edward I. Boniface publishes a bull against the Colonna family; after their reply he passes sentence of degradation, excommunication, and confiscation.

1298. Deposition of the Emperor Adolphus. Albert I. succeeds. Battle of Falkirk,—victory of Edward. Peace between England and France. The Pope proclaims a crusade against the Colonnas.

1299. Palestrina surrendered by the Colonnas to Boniface. Intervention of Boniface in affairs of Scotland by bull of June 27.

1300. Centennial Jubilee proclaimed by Pope Boniface VIII.; he assumes the motto Ecce duo gladii. Sagarelli burnt by the Inquisition at Parma. Siege of Caerlaverock by Edward I.

1301. Quarrel between Boniface VIII. and Philip the Fair begins. Excommunication of Philip. Title of Prince of Wales conferred on the son of Edward I.

1302. The parliament of Lincoln replies to the Pope’s bull. Philip burns the Pope’s bull, January 2. States-General òf France, representative of the three estates, constituted by Philip IV., April. “Battle of Spurs,” the French defeated at Courtrai by the Flemings, July. Philip issues an edict condemning the Inquisition, October.

1303. The emperor Albert promulgates at Nuremberg a Golden Bull, July. The Pope arrested by William of Nogaret at Anagni, September 7; rescued by the people; dies at Rome, October 11. Cession of Guienne to Edward I. by Philip the Fair. Benedict XL pope. The Catalan Grand Company, formed by Roger di Flor, arrives at Constantinople.

1304. Stirling taken by Edward I. Submission of Scotland. Birth of Petrarch (died, 1374). The bulls against France revoked. Victory of Philip the Fair over the Flemings at Mons-en-Puelle.

1305. Clement V. pope. The Knights Templars denounced. Wallace put to death by Edward I., August 23.

1306. Murder of Comyn at Dumfries. Robert Bruce crowned king of Scotland. Roger di Flor assassinated at Adrianople.

1307. Excommunication of Bruce by papal legate at parliament of Carlisle. Edward II. king of England. Fra Dolcino, with Margarita, tortured and burnt at Vercelli. Arrest of Knights Templars in France and England. Battle of Apros,—victory of the Catalans over the Byzantine army.

1308. Assassination of the emperor by John of Austria. Henry VII. (of Luxembourg) succeeds him. Death of Duns Scotus.

1309. The Pope removes to Avignon. Robert of Anjou crowned king of Naples by the Pope. Sire de Joinville writes his history of Louis IX. Commission for trial of the Templars opens at Paris, August 7.

1310. Conquest of Rhodes by the knights of St John. Persecution of the memory of Boniface VIII. by Philip. Dante publishes his De Monarchia about this time. Fifty-four Templars burnt at Paris.

1311-12. Fifteenth General Council, held at Vienne, October to November. Dissolution of order of Templars decreed. Condemnation of the Beghards. Rescript of the emperor defining relations of Swiss confederation to Austria and the empire. University of Orleans founded.

1313. Death of the emperor Henry VII., followed by interregnum. Birth of Boccaccio (died, 1375). Canonization of Celestine V. by Clement V. Death of Clement V. Stirling Castle besieged by Edward Bruce.

1314. Jacques de Molay, grand-master of the Templars, burnt at Paris. Frederick III. (duke of Austria) and Louis V. (IV.) (duke of Bavaria), rival emperors. Louis X. (Hutin) king of France. Battle of Bannockburn,—victory of Robert Bruce over Edward II. June 24. Stirling Castle given up.

1315. Battle of Morgarten,—victory of Swiss confederation over Leopold, duke of Austria. Final defeat of the Catalan Grand Company.

1316. John XXII. pope. John I. king of France four days. Philip V. king of France. Battle of Athenry,—victory of the English over the Irish.

1317. Mediation of the Pope between England and Scotland rejected by Bruce. Bruce excommunicated and Scotland laid under interdict.

1318. Edward Bruce defeated and killed at Dundalk.

1320. Insurrection of the peasantry (the Pastoureaux) in France, June. Conference of Robert of Naples with the Pope at Avignon. The Scottish parliament appeals to the Pope.

1321. Persecution of the lepers in France. Robert of Naples declared vicar of Italy during abeyance of the empire.

1321-1328. Civil wars between rival emperors of the East, Andronicus the elder and the younger.

1322. Charles IV. king of France. Battle of Mühldorf,—Frederick duke of Austria defeated and captured by the Emperor Louis.

1323. Thirteen years’ truce between England and Scotland. The Floral Games instituted at Toulouse. Diet at Frankfort; issues proclamation denying necessity of the pope’s consent to election of emperor, and his right to govern the empire in a vacancy.

1324. The Emperor Louis excommunicated by the Pope, March. John Wycliffe born about this time (died, 1384). Birth of William of Wykeham (died, 1404).

1326. Cannon used by the Florentines; by French and English, 1338 and 1339.

1327. Edward III. king of England. Edward II. deposed and murdered. The emperor declares the Pope a heretic; is crowned at Milan, and again excommunicated.

1328. Philip VI. (house of Valois) king of France. The emperor crowned at Rome, deposes the Pope, and gets Peter de Corbière elected (Nicholas V.) Death of Castruccio Castracani, head of republic of Lucca. Independence of Scotland recognized by treaty of Northampton. Constantinople taken, and Andronicus II. deposed by his grandson Andronicus III.

1329. David II. (Bruce) king of Scotland. Blockade of Nicaea by Orkhan. Battle of Pelekanon,—first engagement between the emperor of the East and the sultan of tlιe Ottomans. Establishment of the Ottoman Empire.

1330. Capitulation of Nicaea to Orkhan.

1332. Invasion of Scotland by Edward Baliol, assisted by Edward III. of England.

1333. Battle of Halidon Hill,—victory of Edward III. over the Scots. Casimir III. the Great, king of Poland. Stephen Dushan king of Servia.

1334. Benedict XII. pope.

1336. Birth of Timur (Tamerlane.) Philip of France visits Avignon.

1337. Edward III. claims the crown of France. Plague of locusts in Europe for three years.

1338. Embassy from Louis of Bavaria and the king of France to the Pope to seek absolution of Louis; absolution refused. Mission of Barlaam from the Emperor Andronicus to Benedict XI1. respecting reunion of Greek and Latin churches. Alliance of Jacob van Artevelde, captain of Ghent with Edward III. Meeting of the emperor and Edward III at Diet of Coblentz.

1339. Edward III. invades France from Flanders. Conquest of Bithynia by the Turks completed.

1340. Battle of Sluys,-victory of Edward III. over the French fleet. Siege of Tournay; a truce concluded. Birth of Chaucer (?)

1341. Firat passage of the Turks into Europe. John V. (Palaeologus) emperor of the East. Regency of Anne of Savoy. Intrigues of John Cantacuzenus. Dispute about the Light of Mount Thabor begins. Petrarch crowned in the Capitol at Rome. Disputed succession in Britanny; gives rise to civil war between John de Montfort and Charles of Blois.

1342. Clement VI. pope.

1343. Death of Robert the Wise, king of Naples.

1344. The jubilee period reduced to fifty years by Clement VI. War in Guienne. First English gold coinage (the florin). Discovery of Madeira by Robert Macham, an Englishman. Battle of Salado,—defeat of the Moors by Alphonso IV. of Portugal. Parliament of Paris organized by ordinance of Philip VI.

1345. Assassination of Jacob van Artevelde. Discovery of Canary Islands by Genoese and Spanish seamen. Servian empire established by Stephen Dushan; his code published, the oldest monument of Servian language. Assassination of the Grand-duke Apokaukos at Constantinople.

1346. Louis of Bavaria again deposed by the Pope. Charles IV. (Count of Luxembourg) elected king of the Romans. Victory of Edward III. over the French at Crecy, August 26. David II. of Scotland defeated and taken prisoner at NevilΓs Cross, Durham, October 17. Siege of Calais begun (taken by Edward III. 1347). Marriage of Orkhan, sultan of the Ottomans,with Theodora, daughter of Cantacuzenus.

1347. Invasion of Naples by Louis of Hungary, January. Flight of Queen Joanna; she sells Avignon to the Pope. Cola di Rienzi tribune and liberator of Rome. University of Prague (Carolinum) founded by the emperor. Death of Louis of Bavaria. Truce between England and France. John Cantacuzenus crowned emperor of the East.

1348-1351. The Black Death prevails in Europe. Massacres of Jews on suspicion of poisoning the wells. War of the Genoese with Cantacuzenus.

1349. The Statute of Labourers (England) passed. Dauphiny united to crown of France. Title of Dauphin given to the king’s eldest son. The Flagellants condemned by bull of Clement VI.

1350. Order of the Garter instituted by Edward III. about this time. John II. king of France; Order of the Star instituted by him. Peter the Cruel, king of Castile. Reconstruction of Windsor Castle begun; completed, 1369. Second Jubilee at Rome.

1351. Joanna restored with her husband Louis of Tarentum to throne of Naples. Rienzi at Prague. Alliance of Venice with Cantacuzenus.

1352. Victory of Genoese over Venetians and Greeks, and their treaty with the Emperor Cantacuzenus. Rienzi surrendered to the Pope. Innocent VI. pope, December.

1353. Establishment of the Turks in Europe. First Statute of Praemunire in England. Rienzi made senator of Rome by Cardinal Albornoz.

1354. Naval Code published by Peter IV. of Aragon. Rienzi slain in insurrection at Rome. Cantacuzenus dethroned, December.

1355. War between England and France renewed. Charles IV. crowned at Rome. Assassination of Inez de Castro by Alphonso IV. of Portugal. Treaty between John Palaeologus I. and Innocent VI. Arabic numerals used by Petrarch.

1356. The Golden Bull of the empire published by Charles IV. Battle of Poitiers,— Edward the Black Pnnce defeats and captures John II. and his son. Wycliffe publishes his Last Age of the Church.

1357. Ordinance for the estate of the land of Ireland issued. Truce between England and France. Triumphal entry of the Black Prince into London. David IL returns to Scotland.

1358. Rising of the peasants (the Jacquerie) in France.

1360. Treaty of Bretigny,—renunciation by Edward III. of his claim to the crown of France, to Normandy, Anjou, and Maine, followed by liberation of King John. France ravaged by the Free Companies. Amurath I. sultan of the Ottomans. Leo Pilatus at Florence, the firat teacher of Greek in Western Europe.

1361. Conquest of Roumania by Amurath I. Adrianople made the seat of the sultans. The Janissaries established. Death of J ohn Tauler (börn, 1290).

1362. U se of English in law pleadings directed bv Act of Parliament. Urban V. pope, October.

1363. Philip the Bold duke of Burgundy.

1364. Charles V. king of France. The coast of Guinea discovered by French seamen about this time. Battle of Auray,— defeat and capture of Bertrand Duguesclin by John Chandos; death of Charles of Blois; Brittany secured to John de Montfort. University of Cracow founded by Casimir the Great.

1365. Urban V. demands tribute of England. University of Vienna founded by Duke Rudolph IV.

1366. The Black Prince defeats Henry of Trastamare at Najara, and re-establishes Peter the Cruel.

1367-1371. William of Wykeham chancellor of England (again, 1389-1391). Foundation of the Kremlin, 1367.

1368. University of Geneva founded. Ming dynasty founded in China; expulsion of the Moguls. Wycliffe’s treatise De Domιmo appears. Visit of the emperor to Rome.

1369. Renewal of war between France and England. John Palaeologus visits Urban V. at Rome, and joins the Latin communion; he is arrested for debt at Venice. Birth of John Huss (?). Foundation of the Bastille.

1370. Timur sovereign of Tagatai. Limoges stormed by the Black Prince. Gregory XL pope. Robert IL, high steward (firat of the Stuart line), king of Scotland. Death of Casimir the Great. Marriage of John of Gaunt with daughter of Peter the Cruel.

1372. Victory of Spanish fleet over the English off Rochelle

1373. March of John of Gaunt from Calais to Bordeaux.

1376. Death of the Black Prince. The “Good Parliament” in England.

1377. Return of the Pope from Avignon to Rome. Wycliffe cited before the bishop of London. The Pope publishes three bulls against Wycliffe. Richard II. king of England.

1378. Urban VI. pope. Clement VII. anti-pope at Avignon. The schism lasts forty years. Wenceslas (king of Bohemia emperor. Cession of Cherbourg to the English by the king ol Navarre. Appearance of Halleys Comet.

1379. Wycliffe sends out his poor priests. The emperor John V. imprisoned.

1380-1386. Conquest of Khorassan by Timur.

1380. Wycliffe’s English New Testament completed. Death ol Bertrand Duguesclin. Charles VI. king of France. Regency ol duke of Anjou. Joanna queen of Naples deprived by Urban VI. Charles of Durazzo made king of Naples. Birth of Thomas à Kempis (died, 1471).

1381. Wycliffe’s declaration against transubstantiation. Poll-tax granted in England. Revolt of the peasantry under Wat the Tyler. Arrest of Lollard preachers ordered. Wycliffe’s opinions condemned by synod of London. An earthquake during the synod. The emperor John V. escapes from prison and becomes tributary to Amurath I.

1382. Victory of the French over the Flemings at Rosbecque.

1383. Expedition of Spenser bishop of Norwich into Flanders. Death of Queen Joanna of Naples.

1384. Wycliffe’s English Bible completed about this time. Death of Wycliffe, December 31. Philip the Bold becomes count of Flanders.

1385. Urban VI. besieged in castle of Nocera (Luceria) by Charles of Durazzo. He escapes to Genoa and puts five cardinals to death for conspiracy. The Scots aided by the French invade England. Richard II. takes and burns Edinburgh. Battle of Aljubarotta,—victory of John I. of Portugal over John I. of Castile.

1386. Timur invades Persia. Battle of Sempach,—Leopold of Austria defeated by the Swiss, July 9. Council of regency in England, under duke of Gloucester. Impeachment of the earl of Suffolk. University of Heidelberg founded. The Jagellon dynasty established in Poland.

1387. Treaty concluded between Amurath I. and the Genoese of Pera. The barons arm against Richard II. and seize the Tower of London.

1388. Scottish invasion of England. Battle of Otterburn (August 19). Douglas killed and Percy (Hotspur) taken prisoner. Jubilee peri od reduced to 33 years. Battle of Falkioping, —Margaret queen of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden defeats and captures Albert of Sweden.

1389. Amurath I. defeats the Servians, Hungarians, and Bulgarians at Kassova and is killed. Bajazet I. succeeds him. Truce between France and England. Richard II. takes the government into his own hands. Boniface IX. pope. Compact of Nuremberg, between the emperor and German princes, against the Jews. Battle of Nafels,—victory of the Swiss over the Austrians, April 9.

1390. Statute passed for uniformity of weights and measures in England (Lancashire excepted). Constantinople unsuccessfully besieged by Bajazet. Third jubilee celebrated.

1391. Manuel II. emperor of the East (associated with his father since 1375). Conquest of Asia Minor completed by Bajazet.

1393 (circa). Gerson chancellor of the university of Paris.

1394. Four years’ truce between England and France. Benedict XIII. pope at Avignon. Richard II. holds a parliament in Ireland. Jews banished from France by Charles VII. Nicolas de Clemangis publishes his De Ruina Ecdesioe.

1395. Milan erected into a duchy for the Visconti by the Emperor Wenceslas. Battle of Nicopolis,—victory of Bajazet over Sigismund of Hungary and the Christians, September 28. Invasion of Russia by Timur.

1396. Marriage of Richard II. with Isabella of France. Truce for 25 years.

1397. Murder of the duke of Gloucester at Calais. The regency declared illegal. Union of Calmar, between Sweden, Denmark, and Norway.

1398-1399. Invasion of India, and capture of Delhi, by Timur. Anti-pope Benedict XIII. imprisoned in his palace at Avignon by Marshal Boucicaut. Boucicaut leads an army to the assistance of Manuel II. .

1399. Deposition of Richard II. Henry IV. (first of the house of Lancaster) king of England. Order of Knights of the Bath instituted. Manuel sets out to visit European Courts, December.

1400. Deposition of the emperor Wenceslaus by the electors; election of Rupert, Count Palatine. John Huss ordained priest. Revolt of Owen Glendower in Wales. Invasion of Scotland by Henry IV. Death of Chaucer, Oct. 25. Birth of Guttenberg (died, 1467).

1401. The statute of heretics (de hoereticis comburendis) passed in England. William Sautre, a Lollard, burnt.

1402. Sultan Bajazet defeated and taken prisoner by Timur at Ángoria; Soliman I. sultan. The Scots invade England, and are defeated by Hotspur at Homildon Hill. Return of Manuel to Constantinople.

1403. Death of Bajazet The French make descents on Wales and the Isle of Wight. Benedict XIII. escapes from imprisonment. Revolt of the Percies. Battle of Shrewsbury,—Hotspur killed, July 23.

1404. Death of Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy. Innocent VII. pope, succeeding Boniface. French descents on England. Alliance of the king of France with Glendower.

1405. Death of Timur. Revolt at Rome. Ladislas, king of Naples, seizes Rome and expels Innocent VII. Revolt of Archbishop Scrope. Birth ofAeneas Sylvius (Pope Pius II.)

1406. James I. king of Scots. He is imprisoned in the Tower of London. Return of Innocent to Rome. Gregory XII. pope.

1407. Assassination of Louis, duke of Orleans, by John, duke of Burgundy, at Paris; origin of the civil war between Burgundians and Armagnacs. John Risby, Lollard preacher, burnt in Scotland.

1408. John Huss appeals to the Pope. Ladislas again enters Rome. Benedict holds a council at Perpignan.

1409. The rival popes are deposed by Council of Pisa. Alexander V. elected. ∙ Ladislas driven from Rome. University of Leipsic founded.

1410. Death of Alexander V. John XXIII. pope. John Huss excommunicated. Sigismund, emperor of the Romans, opposed by Josse, margrave of Moravia, who dies in a few months. Jagellon, king of Poland, defeats Teutonic Knights at Tannenberg, July 15. Wood-engraving begins to be practised about this time.

1411. Huss again excommunicated. Ladislas defeated; crusade published against him. Henry IV. sends troops to the duke of Burgundy. The university of St Andrews founded. Battle of Harlaw,—defeat of Donald, lord of the Isles, by Earl of Mar, July 24.

1412 Henry IV. concludes a treaty with the Orleans party. Huss burns the Pope’s bull. Ladislas makes peace with the Pope. Death, of Margaret, queen of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark.

1413. Ladislas expels John XXIII. and plunders Rome. Interview of John XXIII. and the emperor at Lodi. The Pope convokes a council at Constance. Henry V. king of England. Sir John Oldcastle condemned as a heretic; escapes from the Tower. Mohammed I. sultan of the Ottomans.

1414. Death of Ladislas of Naples. Council of Constance (sixteenth General Council), opened November 5. Persecution of Lollards by Henry V.

1415. Abdication of John XXIII. He is arrested, deposed, and imprisoned by the council. Abdication of Gregory XII. John Huss burnt, July 6. Siege and capture of Harfleur by Henry V. Battle of Agincourt, October 25. Meeting of Benedict XIII. and Sigismund at Perpignan.

1416. Jerome of Prague burnt at Constance. Ceuta taken from the Moors by John I. king of Portugal, May 30. Sigismund visits France and England.

1417. Benedict XIII. deposed. Martin V. elected pope by Council of Constance. Death of Cardinal Robert Hallam, bishop of Salisbury, at Constance. Invasion of Normandy by Henry V. Caen besieged and taken. Gypsies appear in Germany about this time. The county of Savoy erected into a duchy.

1418. Massacre of Armagnacs at Paris by the Burgundians. Sir John Oldcastle hung in chains and burnt. Council of Constance closed, April 22. Prince Henry, the Navigator (born, 1394), begins to send out exploring expeditions.

1419. Madeira re-discovered by Portuguese. Death of the exemperor Wenceslas. John Ziska commander-in-chief of the Hussites. Assassination of the duke of Burgundy at Montereau. Death of Albany, regent of Scotland.

1420. Treaty of Troyes. Henry V. regent of France. Marriage of Henry with princess Catherine of France. Hussite wars begin. Crusade against Hussites proclaimed by the Pope. Ziska takes Prague and defeats Sigismund. The Pope receives at Florence an embassy from Manuel Palaeologus, emperor of the East; he enters Rome.

1421. Henry V. holds a parliament at Rouen. Amurath IL sultan. Great inundation in Holland, the “Biesbosch” formed.

1422. Henry VI. king of England and France. Charles VII. crowned king of France. Regency of Bedford in France, of Gloucester in England. Siege of Constantinople by Amurath II.

1423. Council of Siena (transferred from Pavia) opened. Earliest specimen of Block Book dated this year. University of Louvain founded.

1424. James I. of Scotland liberated by Henry VI., proclaimed and crowned. Bedford defeats the French and Scots at Verneuil. Death of Benedict XIII. Election of anti-pope Clement VIII. Council of Siena transferred to Basel. Death of Ziska.

1425. John Palaeologus II. emperor of the East; he concludes treaty with Amurath II. Statute for punishment of heretics and and Lollards passed in Scotland.

1426. Rivalry of Gloucester and Cardinal Beaufort in England. Defeat of the Germans by Hussites at Aussitz.

1428. Siege of Orleans by the English. Death of the Earl of Salisbury. Lincoln College, Oxford, founded.

1429. Joan of Arc raises the siege and enters Orleans. Talbot defeated at Patay. Charles VII. crowned at Rheims. Termination of the schism in the papacy by abdication of Clement VIII. Order of the Golden Fleece instituted by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy. Death of Gerson.

1430. Capture of Joan of Arc. Conquest of Thessalonica by Amurath II.

1431. Joan of Arc burnt at Rouen ( ?) Henry VI. crowned at Paris. Eugenius IV. pope. Eighteenth General Council transferred from Siena to Basel, opened July 23. Hussite invasion of Germany. Fifth crusade against Hussites. Battle of Taas, —victory of Hussites. Birth of Mantegna (died, 1506).

1432. The Azores taken possession of by Portuguese.

1433. Sigismund crowned at Rome by the Pope. Death of John I. the Great, king of Portugal.

1434. René the Good, duke of Anjou, succeeds his brother Louis as king of Naples; opposed by Alphonso V. of Aragon. Death of Ladislas of Poland. Cosmo de’ Medici supreme at Florence about this time. Flight of Eugenius from Rome.

1435. Congress and Treaty of Arras,—abandonment of English alliance by the Duke of Burgundy. Death of Bedford.

1436. Paris retaken by the French. Calais unsuccessfully besieged by the duke of Burgundy. States-General meet at Orleans. War between England and Scotland.

1437. John Palaeologus embarks at Constantinople in the Pope’s galleys for an interview at Ferrara. Murder of James I. king of Scots; James II. succeeds. Death of Sigismund. Birth of Cardinal Ximenes. Ulugh Begh compiles his Star Tables.

1438. Albert II. emperor (duke of Austria, and king of Hungary and of Bohemia). Council of Ferrara convoked by Eugenius IV. in opposition to Council of Basel; the emperor John Palaeologus and the Greek Patriarch present. The Pope deposed by the Fathers of Basel, and the latter excommunicated at Ferrara; Amadeus, duke·

of Savoy, elected pope (Felix V.) at Basel. Pragmatic Sanction (the Palladium of France), limiting the power of the Pope in France, established by Charles VII. Nine years’ truce made between England and Scotland.

1439. Council of Ferrara transferred to Florence,—decree for union of Greek and Boman churches signed, but rejected by the Greeks. Doctrine of Purgatory adopted. Death of Albert II. Cardinal Bessarion, “restorer of learning,” settles in Italy. Alliance of Zurich with Austria.

1440. Frederick IV. (III.) emperor. Invention of printing with movable types about this time. Amadeus declared anti-pope, heretic, &c. by Council of Florence. Belgrade unsuccessfully besieged by Amurath II. Title of Viscount introduced in England. Eton College founded. Oil painting perfected by Jan van Eyck about this time.

1442. Abdication of Amurath II. Naples taken by Alphonso of Aragon, the kingdom lost by René of Anjou; union of Naples and Sicily as the Two Sicilies.

1443. Eugenius IV. forms a league against the Tiuks. Victory of John Hunniades at Kunobitza. King’s College, Cambridge, founded by Henry VI.

1444. Peace of ten years between Hungary and the Turks concluded at Szegedin. The treaty violated with the Pope’s sanction. Victory of the Turks and death of Ladislas and Cardinal Julian at Varna. George Podiebrad seizes the chief power in Hungary. African slave trade begun by Portuguese. Revolt of Albania under Scanderbeg. Expedition of Charles VII. of France, at request of the emperor, against the Swiss. The siege of Zurich raised. Second abdication of Amurath II.

1445. Marriage of Henry VI. with Margaret of Anjou.

1447. Deaths of the duke of Gloucester and Cardinal Beaufort. Nicholas V. pope. End of the Visconti dynasty at Milan; Francisco Sforza claims the duchy. Foundation of the Vatican Library by Nicholas V.

1448. Constantine XL, Palaeologus, last emperor of the East. Anjou and Maine surrendered to the French. Concordat between the empire and the Pope. Birth of Lorenzo de’ Medici.

1449. Abdication of Felix V., anti-pope. Normandy conquered by the French. Queen’s College, Cambridge, founded.

1450. Jubilee at Rome proclaimed by Nicholas V.; the period again raised to 50 years. Francisco Sforza takes Milan and is proclaimed duke. Impeachment and death of the duke of Suffolk. Insurrection of Jack Cade. Copper-plate engraving invented by Maso Finiguerra about this time.

1451. Mohammed II. sultan of the Ottomans. Conquest of Gascony by the French; Calais alone left to the English. Glasgow University founded.

1452. Murder of the Douglas by James II. The duchies of Modena and Reggio erected by Frederick III. Coronation of Frederick III. by the Pope at Rome (the last emperor crowned at Rome). Birth of Savonarola. Birth of Leonardo da Vinci (died, 1519).

1453. Conspiracy of Stephen Porcaro at Rome. Siege of Constantinople by the sultan Mohammed II. formed, April 6; the city taken by assault, May 29. Death of Constantine,—end of the Eastern empire. Austria erected into an archduchy. Talbot defeated and killed at Castillon. First treaty between France and the Swiss.

1454. The duke of York protector in England.

1455. Calixtus III. pope. The Wars of the Roses begin with the first battle of St Alban’s, May 23. The earl of Warwick captain of Calais. Probable date of the Mazarine Bible, the earliest υrinted book known.

1456. Mohammed II. besieges Belgrade and is αefeated by John Hunniades, who dies soon after.

1457. Death of Ladislas the Posthumous, king of Hungary and Bohemia. Reginald Pecock, bishop of Chichester, condemned by archbishop of Canterbury and imprisoned.

1458. Matthias Corvinus elected king of Hungary, George Podiebrad king of Bohemia. Pius II. (Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini) pope. Magdalen College, Oxford, founded. Conquest of the Morea by Mohammed II.

1459. Death of Poggio (born 1381). University of Basel founded.

1460. Battle of Northampton. James III. king of Scots. The duke of York defeated and killed at battle of Wakefield. Cape Verd discovered by Diogo Gomez. Death of Prince Henry, the Navigator.

1461. Second battle of St Alban’s. Edward IV. (house of York) king of England. Battle of Towton. Louis XL king of France. Conquest of Trebizond by Mohammed II.

1462. Mohammed reduces Wallachia. The emperor besieged in Vienna, is delivered by George Podiebrad. Alliance of Louis XI. with the Swiss and the duke of Milan. Ivan III., the Threatening, grand duke of Russia.

1463. The university of Bourges founded by Louis XL Venetian and Turkish war. Alliance between Venice, Hungary, and the Pope. Excommunication of George Podiebrad. Truce of Hesdin between Louis XL and Edward IV.

1464. Formation of the Ligue du bien public in France. Posts established by Louis XL Paul II. pope. Death of Cosmo de’ Medici. Death of Cardinal Nicolas de Cusa. Fifteen years’ truce between England and Scotland. Battle of Hexham. Conquest of Genoa by Sforza.

1465. Civil war in France. Battle of Montlhéry. Treaties of Conflans and St Maur. Podiebrad deprived of his kingdom by Paul II.

1466. Normandy reannexed to the French crown. Imprisonment of Henry VI. in the Tower. Treaty of Thorn. Second excommunication of Podiebrad. Birth of Colet (died, 1519).

1467. Death of Scanderbeg. Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. Alliance between Edwaιd IV. and Charles the Bold. Birth of Erasmus (died, 1536).

1468. The States-General meet at Tours. Marriage of Charles the Bold with Margaret of York. Treaty of Péronne, between Louis and Charles. Louis held prisoner by Charles. Liege taken and burnt by Charles.

1469. Marriage of James II. of Scotland with Margaret of Denmark. The Orkney and Shetland Islands surrendered to James. Order of St Michael instituted by Louis XL Lorenzo de’ Medici head of the Florentine republic. Marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon with Isabella of Castile. Birth of Machiavelli (died, 1527).

147θ. Ivan III. conquers Kasan and Novgorod. Flight of Warwick to France. Flight of Edward IV. to Burgundy. Henry VI. restored by Warwick. Conquest of Negropont by Mohammed II. The jubilee period fixed at 25 years.

1471. Return of Edward. Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury. Deaths of Warwick and Henry VI. Invasion of France by Charles the Bold. Sixtus IV. pope. Death of Podiebrad. Birth of Wolsey (died, 1530). Birth of Albert Durer (died, 1528). Archbishopric of St Andrews erected.

1472. Charles the Bold buys Guelderland and Zutphen. Guienne annexed to the crown of France. Marriage of Ivan III. with Sophia, daughter of Constantine Piilaeologus. Birth of Copernicus •(died, 1543).

1473. Birth of Chevalier Bayard (died, 1524).

1474. The Perpetual Alliance between Louis XL and the Swiss Confederation. Holstein erected into a duchy. Ferdinand and Isabella proclaimed sovereigns of Castile. Rival claim of Joanna supported by Alphonso V. of Portugal. Neuss besieged by Charles the Bold. Birth of Ariosto (died, 1533).

1475. Invasion of Burgundy by the Swiss. The siege of Neuss raised. Alliance of Edward IV. and Charles the Bold. Invasion of France by Edward. Peace of Pecquigny. University of Bordeaux founded. Birth of Michelangelo (died, 1564). Jubilee at Rome.

1476. Invasion of the Swiss Cantons by Charles. Victories of the Swiss at Granson, March 3, and Morat, June 22. Mohammed II. ravages Moldavia and conquers the Crimea. Caxton sets up his printing press at Westminster, 1476 or 1477.

1477. Siege of Nancy by Charles the Bold, who falls in battle. His daughter Mary succeeds him. Marriage of Mary with Maximilian of Austria. Seizure of Burgundy by Louis. The “Grand Privilege” granted to the Dutch by Mary. Mohammed II. conquers Albania. University of Tübingen founded. Birth of Titian (died, 1576).

1478. Trial and death of the duke of Clarence. Conspiracy of the Pazzi at Florence sanctioned by Sixtus IV. Lorenzo de’ Medici excommunicated by the Pope. Ivan III. defeats Ahmed, khan of the Golden Horde. Christian I. of Denmark founds the university of Copenhagen and the order of the Elephant. University of Upsala founded by Sten Sture.

1479. Ferdinand, the Catholic, becomes king of Aragon. Battle of Guinegate. Peace of Olmutz between Matthias Corvinus and the emperor. Ludovico il Moro takes possession of Milan.

1480. The Spanish Inquisition established by Ferdinand and Isabella. Birth of Sir Thomas More. Siege of Rhodes by Mohammed II. Conquest of Otranto. War breaks out between England and Scotland. Alliance of Lorenzo de’ Medici with Ferdinand of Naples.

1481. Bajazet II. sultan of the Ottomans. Provence annexed to France. Beginning of the war between the Spaniards and the Moors. Alhama surprised by Spaniards. Otranto recovered from the Turks. First auto da fé in Spain, at Seville, by Torquemada.

1482. Death of Mary of Burgundy. Peace of Arras. The duke of Albany assumes the title of king of Scotland. Alliance of the duke with Edward IV.; siege of Berwick. Capture of Edinburgh by Albany and Gloucester. Cardinal Mendoza appointed archbishop of Toledo. Birth of Guicciardini (died, 1540). Birth of Oecolampadius (died,· 1531).

1483. Edward V. king of England murdered. Richard III. king of England. Charles VIII. king of France, regency of Anne of Beaujeu. League of Italian states against Venice. The Venetians excommunicated by Sixtus IV. Birth of Luther (died, 1546). Birth of Baber. Birth of Raphael (died, 1520). Torquemada inquisitor-general of Castile and Aragon.

1484. Birth of Zwingli, (died, 1531). Innocent VIII. pope.

1485. Battle of Bosworth, August 22. Henry VII. (house of Tudor) king of England. Capture of Vienna by Matthias Corvinus. Birth of Sebastiano del Piombo (died, 1547).

1486. Rising of Lambert Simnel. Cape of Good Hope discovered by Bartolomeo Diaz. Henry VII. marries Elizabeth of York.

1487. Defeat and capture of Simnel at battle of Stoke. Birth of Miles Coverdale. Conquest of Austrian states by Matthias. Defeat and capture of the khan of Kasan by Ivan III. Zizim, brother of Bajazet IL, kept prisoner by the Pope till 1495.

1488. James IV. king of Scotland. Disturbances in Flanders. Imprisonment of Maximilian at Bruges. Revolt of French princes. Battle of St Aubin. Grand Swabian League formed (dissolved, 1533). Birth of Andrea del Sarto (died, 1530).

1489. Treaty between Charles VIII. and Maximilian. Maximilian recognized by the Flemish towns as regent. Marriage (by proxy) of Maximilian to Anne of Brittany. Cyprus acquired by Venice. The Pope deposes Ferdinand of Naples. Death of John Wessel (born, 1420).

1490. The marriage of Maximilian annulled. Death of Matthias Corvinus. Austria recovered by the emperor. Birth of Hugh Latimer about this time.

1491. Treaty of Presburg between the emperor and Ladislas of Hungary. Marriage of Charles VIII. with Anne of Brittany. Duchy of Brittany annexed to crown of France.

1492. Granada taken by Ferdinand V. End of the Moorish dominion in Spain. The title of “Catholic” conferred on Ferdinand by the Pope. Expulsion of Jews from Spain. Death of Lorenzo de ’ Medici. Alexander VI. pope. Columbus sails on his first voyage, August 3; lands on San Salvador, October 12. Variation of the compass observed by Columbus. Invasion of France by Henry VII. Treaty of Etaples. Appearance of “Perkin Warbeck” in Ireland. Terrestrial Globe (“World-Apple ”) constructed by Martin Behaim.

1493. Birth of Paracelsus (died, 1541). Maximilian I. emperor. Treaty of Narbonne. Treaty of Senlis. Second voyage of Columbus. Bull of Alexander VI., fixing “line of demarcation” between Spanish and Portuguese possessions.

1494. Expedition of Charles VIII. to Italy. Discovery of Jamaica by Columbus. Savonarola restores popular government in Florence. Negotiations between the Pope and the sultan. Poyning’s Law (Ireland) passed. Persecution of the Lollards of Kyle.

1495. Death of Cardinal Mendoza. Treaty between the Pope and Charles VIII. Charles enters Naples. Battle of Forno va. Treaty of Vercelli. Naples re-entered by Ferdinand II. “Perkin Warbeck” invades England. Birth of Holbein (died, 1543).

1496. Evacuation of Naples by the French.

1497. Newfoundland discovered and the mainland of America reached by the Cabots. The Cape of Good Hope doubled by Vasco di Gama. Excommunication of Savonarola. “Perkin Warbeck” captured. Birth of Melanchthon (died, 1560).

1498. Louis XII. king of France. Savonarola hung and burnt, May 23. Third voyage of Columbus ∙ the mainland of America reached. Death of Torquemada.

1499. Marriage of Louis XII. with Anne of Brittany. Conquest of the Milanese by the French. The mainland of America reached by Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucc i Execution of “Perkin Warbeck.” Lepanto seized by the Turks.

1500. Birth of Charles the Fifth. Brazil discovered by Pinzon. Triumphal entry of Caesar Borgia into Rome. Insurrection against the French at Milan. Sforza betrayed by the Swiss at Novara. The Aulic Council established. Germany divided into six circles; into ten in 1512. Birth of Benvenuto Cellini (died, 1571).

1501. Conquest of Naples by Louis XII. and Ferdinand the Catholic; they quarrel about partition of the kingdom; war lasts till 1504. Marriage of Arthur Tudor with Catherine of Aragon. Expulsion of the Moors from Spain. Columbus brought home in chains.

1502. Marriage of James IV. of Scotland with Margaret Tudor. Fourth voyage of Columbus. Treaty of peace between Turks and Venetians. University of Wittenberg founded.

1503. Battle of Cerignola. The French driven from Naples by the Spaniards. Pius III. pope; on his death, Julius II. Borgia driven from Rome. Birth of Robert Stephens (Estienne) (died, 1559).

1504. The Spanish conquest of Naples completed by the capture of Gaeta by Gonsalvo of Cordova, January 1. Treaty of Blois, between Louis XII., Maximilian I., and Archduke Philip. Alliance between Julius IL, Louis, and Maximilian. Death of Queen Isabella. Baber becomes king of Cabul. Birth of Parmigiano (died, 1540).

1505. Baber conquers Candahar. Christ’s College, Cambridge, founded. Birth of John Knox. Treaty of Blois between Louis and Ferdinand. Marriage of Ferdinand with Germaine de Foix. Colet dean of St Paul’s.

1506. Concord of Salamanca, between Ferdinand and Philip king of Castile. Death of Columbus, May 20. Madagascar discovered by Almeida. Birth of George Buchanan (died, 1582). First stone of St Peter’s at Rome laid, April 18.

1507. Margaret of Austria governess of the Netherlands. Reforms in the empire established at Diet of Constance.

1508. Unsuccessful expedition of Maximilian to Italy. The League of Cambray formed between the Pope, the emperor, and the king of France, against Venice, December 10. Birth of Alva.

1509. Henry VIII. king of England, April 22; his marriage with Catherine of Aragon, June. Wolsey almoner to the King. Conquest of Oran by Cardinal Ximenes. Excommunication of the Venetians by Julius II. Battle of Agnadello. Pisa sold to Florence. Capture of Padua by Venetians. Unsuccessful siege of Padua by Maximilian. Birth of Calvin (died, 1564.) Albuquerque, governor of the Indies.

1510. Reconciliation between the Pope and the Venetians. Death of Cardinal d’ Amboise. Conquest of Cuba by Spaniards. Louis XII. holds a national council at Tours. Luther visits Rome. Goa stormed, by Albuquerque. Portuguese settlement in th& Moluccas. University of Alcala founded by Ximenes.

1511. Capture of Mirandola by Julius II. The Holy League between the Pope, Ferdinand, and Venice. . League between Ferdinand and Henry VIII. against France. Council of Pisa. Malacca taken by Albuquerque. Baber acquires Bokhara and Samarcand.

1512. Selim I. sultan of the Ottomans. Siege ana sack of Brescia by Gaston de Foix. Battle of Ravenna, death of Gaston. Death of Giorgione (born, 1477). Nineteenth General Council (fifth of the Lateran) opens May 3. League between James of Scotland and Louis XII. War between England and France. Julius II. excommunicates Louis, and lays interdict on France. The Trinity House founded about this time. Conquest of Navarre and incorporation with Castile. Birth of Tintoretto (died. 1594.) Birth of Vasari (died, 1574.)

1513. Leo X. elected pope, Marcn 11. Battle of the Spurs. Siege and capture of Terouenne by Henry VIII. Battle of Flodden, James IV. defeated and killed. Capture of Toumay. Christian II. king of Denmark. Balboa, “silent upon a peak in Darien,” first sees the Pacific Ocean, September 25. Persecution of Reuchlin by the Inquisition. Louis XII. makes peace with the Pope.

1514. Death of Anne of Brittany. Truce between Louis and Ferdinand. Peace between England and France. Marriage of Louis with Mary of England, Oct. 9. Peace between England and Scotland. Wolsey made archbishop of York.

1515. Francis I. king of France, January 1.; regency of his mother Louisa. French invasion of Italy. Battle of Marignano. Subjugation of the Milanese. Meeting of Louis X. and Francis I. at Bologna. Concordat signed and the Pragmatic Sanction abolished. Wolsey created cardinal and appointed chancellor. Birth of Roger Ascham (died, 1568.) First part of the Epistolce Obscurorum Virorum published 'second part, 1517). Death of Botticelli (born, 1447).

1516. Death of Ferdinand the Catholic, January 23. Charles I. king of Spain. Regency of Ximenes. Treaty of Noyon, between Charles and Francis I. Treaty of London,—league against France. Peace of Brussels, between the emperor, Francis I., and the Venetians, December 4. The “Perpetual Peace” between France and the Scots. Barbarossa, sultan of Algiers More’s Utopia published.

1517. Council of the Lateran closed, March 16. Sale of Indulgences authorized by Leo X. Tetzel in Germany. Luther’s Theses published, October 31 Death of Ximenes, November 8. Sovereignty of the Mamelukes in Egypt overthrown by Selim I. Femao d’ Andrada visits China. Birth of John Foxe (died, 1587.) Death of Fra Bartolommeo (Baccio della Porta) (born, 1469). Death of Francia (born about 1450).

1518. Wolsey made papal legate. Treaty between Francis I. and Henry VIII. Luther before Cajetan at Diet of Augsburg. Luther condemned by the Pope; appeals to General Council. Zwingli preacher at cathedral of Zurich.

1519. Death of Maximilian I., January 12. Charles I. of Spain elected emperor (Charles V.), June 28. Disputation of Luther and Dr Eck at Leipsic, June-July. Mexico taken by Cortez, November. Magdalen College, Cambridge, founded.

1520. Visit of Charles V. to England. Meeting of Henry VIII. and Francis I. on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, June. Bull of Leo X. against Luther, June. Cortez leaves Mexico, July. Luther bums the bull, December 10. Soliman IL, the Magnificent, sultan of the Ottomans. Massacre of Stockholm by Christian II., November. Magellan enters the Pacific Ocean, November 28.

1521. Luther excommunicated, January 3. Luther at the Diet of Worms, April. Carried off to the Wartburg. Execution of the duke of Buckingham. Excommunication of Francis I. Treaty of Bruges. Belgrade taken by Soliman. Henry VIII. writes against Luther and receives the title of Defender of the Faith. Gustavus Vasa administrator of Sweden. Siege and capture of Mexico by Cortez, May to August. Milan recovered from the French. Death of Leo X., December 1. Ladrone and Philippine Islands discovered by Magellan The Log mentioned. Melanchthon’s Loci Communes published.

1522. Adrian VI. pope, January. The French defeated in Lombardy. Charles V. visits England Henry VIII. invades France. Persecution of the Moors in Spain. Rhodes surrenders to Soliman. Bomb-shells used by Turks at this siege. Escape of the Constable de Bourbon from France. Death of Reuchlin (born, 1455) First voyage round the world made by a ship of Magellan’s squadron. Complutensian Polyglot Bible published.

1523. League of Constable de Bourbon with the emperor anti Henry VIII. Invasion of France. League of Rome Capture of Jedburgh by earl of Surrey. Gustavas Vasa, king of Sweden. Invasion of Italy by the French. Death of Ulrich von Hutten (born, 1488). Clement VII. pope, November 19. Christian II. of Denmark deposed; Frederick I. elected king.

15)24. Capture of Copenhagen by Frederick I. Rout of the French and death of Bayard at the Se’sia. Peasant war in Germany breaks out under Munzer. Wolsey made legate for life. Invasion of the Milanese by Francis I. Siege of Pavia. Lahore taken by Baber. Luther’s controversy with Carlstadt. Mikkelsen’s Danish New Testament published. Birth of Palestrina (died, 1594). Death of Penιgino (born, 1446). Death of Signorelli (born about 1440).

1525. Battle of Pavia,—Francis I. taken prisoner by Imperialists,· February 24. Luther’s marriage. League of Torgau. Treaty between England and France. Munzer defeated at Frankenhausen, and executed. Death of Frederick the Wise of Saxony; John the Constant succeeds him. Visitation of the monasteries undertaken by Wolsey. Religious liberty established in Denmark. The Buccaneers begin their piracies in the West Indies about this time. Secularization of the territory of the Teutonic knights; East Prussia erected into a duchy for Albert of Brandenburg, the grandmaster.

1526. Marriage of Charles V. with Isabella of Portugal, January. Treaty of Madrid, January 14. Francis liberated, February. League of Cognac between Francis, the Pope, Venice, and Henry VIII., March. Battle of Paniput,—victory of Baber over Ibrahim Lodi, April. Diet of Spires, June. Victory of Soliman over Hungarians at Mohacz, August. Buda burnt. The Pope captured by Cardinal Colonna, September. Pizarro and Almagro arrange partition of Peru. Swedish New Testament published. Tyndale’s New Testament.

1527. The crown of Hungary disputed by John Zapolya and Ferdinand of Bohemia. Rome taken and sacked by Imperialists, the Pope taken prisoner, May. Death of Constable de Bourbon. Treaty between the emperor and the Pope. New alliance between England and France. Application of Henry VIII. to the Pope to examine into the lawfulness of his marriage. Capture of Genoa and Pavia by the French. Discovery of the Bermudas by Juan Bermudez, and of New Guinea by the Portuguese. University of Marburg founded.

1528. Coronation of Gustavus, January 12. England and France declare war on the emperor. Patrick Hamilton burnt at Glasgow, February. Campeggio in England. Expulsion of the French from Genoa by Andrea Doria, September. Latin Bible of Pagninus published.

1529. The legatine court in England opened. Diet of Spires, at which the name “Protestants” is adopted. Peace of Cambray. Soliman takes Buda and gets Zapolya crowned king of Hungary, September. Lutheranism established in Sweden by f)iet of Orebro. Vienna besieged by Soliman. Conference of Marburg, October. Fall of Wolsey. Conferences of the Pope and the emperor at Bologna, November to January 1530. Death of Quintin Matsys (born, 1460).

1530. Coronation of Charles as king of Lombardy and emperor, February. The marquisate of Mantua erected into a duchy, March. Malta given by Charles V. to the knights of St John. Diet of Augsburg opens, June 13; closes November 13. Confession of Augsburg. Marriage of Francis I. with Eleanor of Austria, July 4. Death of Wolsey, November 29. Death of Margaret, governess of the Netherlands. Death of Baber, December 26; Humayun succeeds. League of Smalkald formed, December 31.

1531. Inundation in Holland. Earthquake at Lisbon, January. Expuls⅛H of Gypsies from England. Death of Zwingli at the battle of Cappel, October 11.

1532. First religious peace (peace of Nuremberg) concluded, July. Diet of Ratisbon. The Caroline Code passed. Court of Session organized by James V. Private marriage of Henry VIII. with Anne Boleyn. Christian II. imprisoned. Florence erected into a duchy for the Medici. Peru taken possession of by Pizarro and Almagro. Duchy of Brittany reunited to the crown of France. Machiavelli’s Del Principe published. Bruccioli’s Italian Bible. Antwerp Exchange built, the first of the kind.

1533. Cranmer archbishop of Canterbury. He pronounces Henry’s marriage with Catherine null and void. His decision reversed by the Pope. John Fry th burnt at Smithfield. Marriage of Henry, duke of Orleans, with Catherine de’ Medici. Flight of Calvin from Paris. Treaty between Francis I. and Barbarossa. Birth of Montaigne (died, 1592). Death of Lucas van Leyden (born, 1494).

1534. The papal power in England abrogated by Act of Parliament. The Act of Supremacy. Anabaptists besieged in Munster by the prince-bishop. Execution of Elizabeth Barton, the holy maid of Kent. Paul III. pope, October 13. Barbarossa seizes the kingdom of Tunis. John of Leyden (Bockelsohn), head of Anabaptists at Munster. Society of Jesus founded by Loyola, Lainez, and others. Death of the earl of Kildare" in the Tower of London, December. Munster’s Latin Bible. Luther’s Bible completed. Death of Correggio

1535. Henry VIII. takes the title of Supreme Head of the Church of England, January. Expedition of Charles V. to Tunis, defeat of Barbarossa, capture of Tunis, June. Capture of Munster and execution of John, June. Thomas Cromwell vicar-general of the king in England. Visitation of the monasteries undertaken. Persecution of French Protestants. Execution of Fisher and More. George Wishart begins preaching in Scotland. Milan taken possession of by Charles V., October. Siege of Copenhagen by Christian III., begun. Buenos Ayres founded by Pedro de Mendoza. Calvin’s Institutio Religionis Christianae published. Olivé-tan s French Bible. Coverdale’s English Bible. Canada visited by Jacques Cartier.

1536. Death of Catherine of Aragon, January 8. Alliance between Francis I. and Soliman, against Charles V. Overthrow of the Geraldines in Ireland. Execution of Queen Anne (Boleyn), May 19, and marriage of Henry VIII. with Jane Seymour, May 20. Attainder of Reginald Pole for his book De Unitate Ecclesiastica. Incorporation of Wales with England. Calvin goes to Geneva. Dissolution of the lesser monasteries in England. Invasion of France by Charles V., July. Surrender of Copenhagen to Christian III., July 29. Siege of Marseilles by Charles, August to December, Lutheranism established in Denmark. Defeat of Imperialists by Turks at Eszek, November. Tyndale burnt at Vilvoord, October 6. The bull In Coena Domini published by Paul III.

1537. Marriage of James V. with Madeleine of France, January 1. Catholic insurrections in England. Campaign of the French in the Netherlands. Death of Queen Madeleine, July 7. Commission of inquiry into the grievances of Ireland. Death of Queen Jane, October. Eruption of Etna, lasts a year.

• 1538. Calvin' banished from Geneva, April. Negotiations of Charles V. and Francis I. at Nice, a truce for ten years signed, June. The Holy League of Nuremberg formed, June. Marriage of James V. of Scotland with Mary of Lorraine, June. Use of English Bible in churches enjoined, September. Parish registers ordered to be kept in England, September. Execution of relatives of Cardinal Pole; imprisonment of his mother the Countess oí Salisbury. Paul III. excommunicates and deposes Henry VIII., December. Severe edict of Francis I. against the Protestants. David Beatoun created cardinal, December. The Great Bible published.

1539. Treaty of Toledo, “perpetual peace” between Charles and Francis, signed January 10. Dissolution of the Spanish Cortes, February. Revolt of Ghent. Dissolution of all monasteries in England. Statute of the Six Articles passed. Cardinal Beatoun archbishop of St Andrews. Birth of Socinus (died, 1604).

1540. Entry of Charles and Francis into Paris, January 1. Marriage of Henry VIII. with Anne of Cleves, January 6. Charles at Ghent,—execution of leading citizens, ancient liberties suppressed, February. The Order of Knights of St John suppressed in England. Execution of Thomas Cromwell, July 28. Henry marries Catherine Howard, July 28. Appointment of a second secretary of state in England. Disputation of Papist and Protestant doctors at Worms, November. The Society of Jesus conditionally sanctioned by Paul HI. (unconditionally, 1543). The Louvre begun by Francis I. The rupee first issued.

1541. Diet of Ratisbon. Execution of Countess of Salisbury. Invasion of Hungary by Soliman. Occupation of Buda. Death of John Zapolya. Disastrous expedition of Charles V. to Algiers. Calvin returns to Geneva. The Mississippi discovered by De Soto.

15 42. The ecclesiastical “Ordinances” adopted at Geneva, January 2. Diet of Spires. Execution of Queen Catherine (Howard), February. War between England and Scotland. War renewed between France and the emperor. Paul III. convokes Council of Trent, May. Siege of Perpignan, August to October. Battle of Solway Moss, November 25. Mary queen of Scots, December 14.; Regency of Arran. John Knox becomes a Protestant. Xavier sent to India. Mendez-Pinto in Japan. Swedish Bible published.

1543. Alliance between Henry VIII. and the emperor, February. Death of Copernicus, May 24. Invasion of Hungary by Soliman; Grau taken, August, and large part of the kingdom conquered. Marriage of Henry VIII. with Catherine Parr, July. Coasts of Italy ravaged by Barbarossa. Attack on duchy of Juliers, capture of Düren by Charles V. Cardinal Beatoun chancellor of Scotland. F.nzinas’s Spanish New Testament published. Tyndale’s Bible proscribed by English Parliament. The Copernican system of the world published, May.

1544. The kingdom of Sweden declared hereditary in the house of Gustavus, January. Diet of Spires, opens February 20. Battle of Cerisoles, April. Edinburgh and Leith burnt by the English, May. Henιy VIII. invades France, July; takes Boulogne, September. Peace of Crespi, September. Paul III. summons the adjourned council for March 1545, November. Birth of Tasso (died, 1595). University of Königsberg founded.

1545. Extermination of the Vaudois in. Provence ordered by Francis I., January. Battle of Ancrum Muir, February 17. Peter du Breuil, Calvinist preacher, burnt at Tournay, February 19. Diet of Worms, March. Parma and Piacenza erected into a duchy by Paul III. for his son, Piero Luigi Farnese. Council of Trent opened, December 13. Silver mines of Potosi discovered.

1546. Death of Luther, February 18. Assassination of Cardinal Beatoun at St Andrews, May 28. Peace between England and France, June. Tyndale’s and Coverdale’s New Testaments and many English books proscribed by royal proclamation, July 8. Anne Askew burnt in London, July 16. Stephen Dolet burnt at Paris, August 3. The Smalkaldlc War begins. Christ Church, Oxford, and Trinity College, Cambridge, founded by Henry VIII. Death of Giulio Romano. Birth of Tycho Brahe (died, 1601). The King's Primer, first sketch of the Book of Common Prayer.

1547. Conspiracy of Fiesco at Genoa, January 2. The earl of Surrey beheaded, January 19. Edward VI. king of England, January 28; protectorate of Somerset. Council of Trent transferred to Bologna, March. Henry II. king of France, March 31. Battle of Mühlberg,—defeat and capture of John Frederick, elector of Saxony, by Charles V., April 24. Capitulation of Wittenberg signed, May 19. The Protector invades Scotland, and defeats the Scots at Pinkie, September 10. Visitation of churches in England. Birth of Cervantes (died, 1616). University of Jena founded.

1548. Sigismund II. king of Poland. Charles V. at Diet of Augsburg publishes the Interim, May 15. Rise of Adiaphoristic controversy. Charles s edict of Reformation, June 14. Mary, que⅛n of Scots, is sent to France. The Netherlands, as the circle of Burgundy, incorporated with the empire. Constance seized by Imperialists and put under the ban, October 14, 15. Marriage of Antoine de Bourbon with Jeanne d’Albret, October.

1549. Act of Uniformity passed in England. Lord Seymour beheaded. War between England and France. Catholic risings in England. Siege of Boulogne by the French begun. Auto-da-fé at Paris at the coronation of Catherine de’ Medici, June. Death of Pope Paul III., November 10. Death of Paul Fagins, November (born 1504). Death of Margaret, queen of Navarre, December 21. Mission of Xavier to Japan,—to 1551.

1550. Julius III. pope, February 8. Peace between England and France and Scotland; Boulogne surrendered, April. The new liturgy first used at Dublin. Joan Bocher burnt, May 2. The Spanish Inquisition established in the Netherlands by Charles V.; his edict against the Protestants, April 29. Diet of Augsburg. Death of the Imperial Chancellor Granvella, August 28. Siege of Magdeburg by Maurice of Saxony begun, September. Camera Obscura invented by Baptista Porta. Rise of Protestantism in England. Vasari's Lives oj'the Painters published.

1551. Death of Martin Bucer, February (born, 1491). Council meets again at Trent, May 1. War about duchy of Parma. Treaty between Henry II. of France and Maurice, October 5; ratified by Henry, January 15,1552. Capitulation of Magdeburg, November 3. Birth of William Camden (died, 1623). Robert Recorde’s Groundc of Artes published. Teklucyan’s Polish New Testament. Castalio’s Latin Bible.

1552. Act of Uniformity passed in England. Execution of Somerset, January. War between Maurice and the emperor. Council of Trent prorogued, April 28. Seizure of the three bishoprics, Metz, Toul, and Verdun, by Henry II. Siege of Metz begun by Charles V. Invasion of Hungary by Turks. Peace of Passau, August 12. Death of St Francis Xavier, December 2. Birth of Father Paul (Pietro Sarpi) (died, 1623). Birth of Spenser (died, 1599). Birth of Raleigh (died, 1618). Birth of Sir Edward Coke (died, 1632).

1553. Siege of Metz abandoned, January. Mary queen of England, July 6. Lady Jane Grey proclaimed, July 10. Battle of Sievershausen; the elector Maurice killed, July 9. Servetus burnt at Geneva, October 27. Death of Rabelais. (?) Archangel reached by Richard Chancellor.

1554. Wyatt’s insurrection in Kent, January. John Knox escapes to France, January. Execution of the Lady Jane, February 12. Marriage of Queen Mary with Philip of Spain, July. War continued between the emperor and the king of France. War of Siena. Absolution of England by Cardinal Pole, November. Birth of Sir Philip Sidney (died, 1586). Birth of Hooker (died, 1600),

1555. Diet of Augsburg opens, February. The Marian persecution begins. Marcellus II. pope, April 9, three weeks. Paul IV. pope, May 23. The Peace of Religion published, September 26 Abdication of sovereignty of the Netherlands by Charles in favour of his son Philip, October. The Synergist Controversy begins.

1556. Akbar Mogul emperor, January. Charles resigns the crown of Spain to Philip IL, January 16. Truce of Váucelles between the emperor and the king of France, February 5. Archbishop Cranmer burnt, March 21. Cardinal Pole archbishop of Canterbury, March 22. Charles resigns the imperial crown to his brother Ferdinand I, September 7. The Pope refuses to recognize Ferdinand. Invasion of Papal States by Alva. Ridley and Latimer burnt at Oxford, October 16. Trinity College, Oxford, founded. Mercator’s Projection invented. Beza’s Latin New Testament published.

1557. Charles V. retires to a monastery, February. First ambassador from Russia arrives in England, February. The Inquisition established in France, April 26. England declares war on France, June. Battle of St. Quentin, August 10. The town taken by Spaniards, August 27. Guise appointed lieutenant-general of the kingdom, August. Peace between the Pope and Philip II. September. St. John’s College, Oxford, founded.

1558. Calais taken by Guise, January 1-7. Ferdinand I. recognized emperor, March 12. Marriage of Mary, queen of Scots, with the Dauphin, April 24. Battle of Gravelines, July 13. Death of Charles V., September 21. Death of Cardinal Pole, November 17. Elizabeth queen of England, November 17.

1559. The Royal Supremacy restored in England, January. Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis, April 2. John Knox arrives in Scotland, May 2. Marriage of Philip II. with Elizabeth of France, June, English Book of Common Prayer first used, June. Francis II. king of France, July 10. Philip II. returns to Spain, August. Margaret of Austria regent of the Netherlands. First auto-da-fé of Protestants at Valladolid. Pius IV. pope, December 26. Birth of Tilly. Birth of Isaac Casaubon (died, 1614).

1560. Death of John Alasco, January (born, 1499). Treaty of Berwick, January. Conspiracy of Amboise, February, March. Edict of Romorantin, May. French evacuate Scotland, July. The Reformation established by Scots parliament, August 25. Duke of Savoy makes war on the Vaudois, September. Prince of Conde a'rrested, November. Charles IX. king of France, December 5. Regency seized by Catherine de’ Medici. States-General meet at Orleans, December 31. Birth of Arminius (died, 1609). Westminster School founded.

1561. Birth of Bacon, January (died, 1626). Edict of Orleans, January 31. Rebellion of Shane O’Neal in Ireland, spring. The “Triumvirate,” alliance against the Huguenots, Easter. Edict of July. Return of Queen Mary to . Scotland, August. Colloquy of Poissy, September 9 to October 9. The first observatory built at Cassel. Leonard’s Polish Bible published. Tobacco introduced into Europe.

1562. Edict of January (or of Toleration) in France. Apostasy of the king of Navarre, January. Massacre of Vassy, May 1. War between Catholics and Protestants in France begins. Slaughter of Protestants at Toulouse, May. Queen Elizabeth concludes treaty with Condé, September 20. Havre occupied by the English, September. Siege of Rouen begun by the king of Navarre, September 18; taken, October 26. Death of Peter Martyr, November 12 (born, 1500). Death of king of Navarre, November 17. Birth of Lope de Vega, November (died, 1635). Battle of Dreux, Condé taken prisoner, December 19. African slave trade begun by Hawkins. Truce between the emperor and the sultan.

1563. Council of Trent re-opened, January 18. The Thirty-nine Articles of Church of England settled by Convocation, January 29. Assassination of duke of Guise, February 18. Pacification by Edict of Amboise, March 19. France declares war on England, July 6. Surrender of Havre, July 8. Charles IX. declared of age, August 17. Council of Trent closed, December 4. Foxe’s Book of Martyrs published.

1564. Acts of Council of Trent confirmed by Pius IV. January 26. Birth of Galileo, February 18 (died 1642). Treaty of peace between England and France, April 1. Birth of Shakspeare. Death of Calvin, May 27. Maximilian II. emperor, July 25. Edict of Roussillon, August 6. Birth of Marlowe (died, 1593). Congregation of the Oratory founded at Rome.

1565. Siege of Malta by Mustapha Pasha, May to September. Marriage of Mary queen of Scots with Lord Darnley, July 29. Confederation of the Gueux founded in the Netherlands, November. Death of Pius IV., December 9. Conferences between Catherine de’ Medici and Alva at Bayonne.

1566. Pius V. pope, January 7. The “Compromise” published by the Leaguers in the Netherlands, January. The Grande Ordonnance de Moulins published, February. Murder of David Rizzio, March 9. Revolt of the Netherlands begins. Invasion of Hungary by Soliman. Death of Soliman at Szigeth, September 5. Selim II. sultan. Severe decree of Philip II. against the Moors, November 17 The Russia Company sanctioned by Act of Parliament.

1567. Murder of Darnley, Februaιy 10. Marriage of Mary to Bothwell, May 15. Shane O’Neal defeated, May; assassinated, June 2.

Queen Mary compelled to resign the crown to her son, James VI., July 24. Mary imprisoned, Murray regent. Alva sent as governor to the Netherlands, August. The Council of Blood organized. War of religion renewed in France. Battle of St Denis, November 10. Death of Constable Montmorenci, November 12. Rugby School founded.

1568. Seizure and imprisonment of Don Carlos by his father, Philip IL, January. The Inquisition condemns the inhabitants of the Netherlands to death, February 16. Edict of Longjumeau, March 23. Revolt of Moors in Spain, April. Battle of Langside, May 13. Flight of Mary to England. Louis of Nassau defeats the Spaniards at Heyligerlee, May 23 Execution of Egmont and Horn, June 5. Death of Don Carlos, July. Eric XIV. of Sweden deposed, September 30. The English College at Douai founded. Party ot the Politiques formed in France. Birth of Campanella (died, 1639).

1569. Battle of Jarnac, Condé killed, March 13. Tuscany erected into a grand duchy, September 1. Coligny proscribed by parliament of Paris, September 13. Battle of Moncontour, October 3. Revolt of Catholic earls in England, November. De Reyna's Spanish, Bible published.

1570. Assassination of the Regent Murray, January 23. Εxcom-munication of Queen Elizabeth by Pius V., February 25. Invasion of Cyprus by the Turks, July. Peace of St Germain, August 8. Marriage of Charles JX. with Elizabeth of Austria, November 26. Great inundations in Holland. Conquest of Yemen by Selim II. Ascham’s Scholemastxr published.

1571. Severe laws against the Catholics in England. The Regent Lennox killed, September 4. Regency of Mar. Holy League against Turks, formed by the Pope, the King of Spain, and Venice. Victory of Don John of Austria over the Turks at Lepanto, October 7. Universities of Oxford and Cambridge incorporated. Jesus College, Oxford, founded. Birth of Kepler (died, 1630). Harrow School founded.

1572. Seizure of Briel by the Confederates, spring. Gregory XIII. pope, May 13. Execution of the duke of Norfolk, June 2. Death of Jeanne d’Albret, June 10. William of Orange declared Stadtholder, July 15. Death of Sigismund II. of Poland, July. Marriage of Henry of Navaιτe and Margaret of Valois, August 18. Massacre of St Bartholomew, August 24 seq.; Coligny killed. Death of John Knox, November 24. Siege of Haarlem by Spaniards, December 9. Conquest of Guzerat by Akbar (1572-74).

1573. Siege of La Rochelle by duke of Anjou, February. Death of De ΓHδpital, March 13. Duke of Anjou elected king of Poland, May. Treaty with the Huguenots of Rochelle, &c., June 24. Edict of toleration issued by Charles IX, July. Surrender of Haarlem, July 12. Siege of Alkmaar by Spaniards, August; raised, October 8. Siege of Leyden, October 31. Earl of Morton regent of Scotland, November. Alva recalled, Requesens governor of the Netherlands, December. Birth of Donne (died 1631). Birth of Inigo Jones, (died, 1652). Firat English translation of Euclid published.

1574. Henry III. king of France, May 30. Expedition of Sebastian king of Portugal against the Moors in Africa. Siege of Leyden raised, October 3. Amurath III. sultan, December. Birth of Ben Jonson (died, 1637.)

1575. Stephen Bathori, elected king of Poland, December. Conquest of Bengal and Behar by Akbar Birth of Guido (died, 1642). University of Leyden founded by Prince of Orange.

1576. The League, in France, organized, February. Death of Requesens, March 5. La Paix de Monsieur, in favour of the Huguenots, May 14. Rudolph IL emperor, October 12. Sack of Antwerp, November. Pacification of Ghent, November 8. Dδα John, governor of the Netherlands, November. Henry III. joins the League, December. The plague at Milan. Frobisher's Strait discovered. Birth of John Fletcher (died, 1625). Birth of Robert Burton (died, 1639). The dipping needle invented by Robert Norman.

1577. The Union of Brussels, January. The Perpetual Edict published by Don John, March 12; confirmed by Philip II., April 7. Peace of Bergerac (or Poitiers), September. Insurrection at Ghent, autumn. Deposition of Don John, December 7. New Union of Brussels, December 10. Drake sails on voyage round the world, December 13. Birth of Rubens (died, 1640).

1578. Treaty between Queen Elizabeth and the Dutch, January 7. Battle of Gemblours, January 31. Battle of Rymenants, August 1. Sebastian of Portugal defeated and killed by the Moors, at Alcazarquivir, August 4. Death of Don John, October 1. Alexander Farnese, duke of Parma, governor of the Netherlands, October. Lyly’s Euph,ues published. The English State Paper Office founded. Order of the Holy Ghost instituted by Henry III. of France. Birth of William Harvey (died, 1657).

1579. Union of Utrecht, basis of the Dutch Republic, proclaimed, January 29. Treaty of Nérac, between Catherine de’ Medici and the king of Navarre, February 28. Treaty between the Walloon provinces and Farnese, May 17. Siege of Maestricht by Spaniards, March to June 29. A body of Spaniards invade Kerry, and occupy Smerwick, July. Socinus preaches in Poland. Protestantism proscribed in Austria

1580. Birth of Archbishop Ussher (died, 1656). William of Orange put under the ban by Philip, June. Battle of Alcantara, August 25. Portugal annexed to Spain, and Philip proclaimed king, September 2. Duke of Anjou made stadtholder of the Netherlands, September 19. Massacre of Smerwick, November 11. Return of Drake. Revolt of the Desmonds in Ireland. Formula of Concord published by the elector of Saxony. Rise of the Brown-ιsts in England. Montaigne's Essais published.

1581. Execution of the Regent Morton, June 3. Declaration of Independence by the United Provinces, July 26. Siege of Cambrai by Spaniards; raised by An]ou, August. Execution of Campian, December 1. Birth of Domenichino (died, 1641). Birth of Lord Herbert of Cherbury (died, 1648), Turkey Company, of London, incorporated

1582. Reformation of the Calendar (New Style) introduced by Gregory XII 1., February 24. The raid of Ruthven, August. University of Edinburgh founded. Death of St Theresa.

1583. Attempt of Anjou to seize Antwerp, January 17. Birth of Grotius (died, 1645). Birth of Wallenstein.

1584. Death of Anjou, June 10. Assassination of the Prince of Orange, at Delft, July 10. His son Maurice elected stadtholder. Siege of Antwerp by the duke of Parma, July. Treaty between the League and Philip II., December. Discovery and colonization of Virginia. Emmanuel College, Cambridge, founded. Birth of Selden (died, 1654). Birth of Massinger (died, 1640).

1585. Sextus V. pope, April 24. Edict of Nemours, July 7. Queen Elizabeth accepts protectorate of the Netherlands, July. Barneveldt appointed advocate-general of Holland and West Friesland. Expedition of Drake against Spanish West Indies. Capitulation of Antwerp, August 17. War of the three Henries, in France. English army under Leicester sent to Netherlands, December. Abbas the Great shah of Persia. Birth of Richelieu. Birth of Beaumont (died, 1616). Birth of Drummond of Hawthomden (died, 1649).

1586. Babyngton's plot against Queen Elizabeth, September. Battle of Zutρhen, September 22; Sir Philip Sidney wounded; he dies, October 7. Trial of Mary, queen of Scots, October 11. Shakespeare in London. Camden's Brùunnia, published. The Escorial completed by Philip II.

1587. Mary, queen of Scots, beheaded, February 8. Expedition of Drake to Cadiz, April. Sluys capitulates to Spaniards, August 4. German invasion of France, July. Battle of Contras, October 20. Davis’s Straits discovered. Persecution of Christians in Japan (again 1590 and 1597).

1588. Guise enters Paris, May 9. Day of the Barricades, May 12. The “Invincible Armada” sails from Lisbon, June 1; defeated and dispersed, July and August. Edict of Union between the League and Henry III., July 21. States-General at Blois, October 10. Assassination of Guise, December 23; of Cardinal of Guise, December 24. Birth of Hobbes (died, 1679). Annales Ecclesiastici of Baronius (1588-1607). The Rialto, Venice, built. Death of Paolo Veronese.

1589. Death of Catherine de' Medici, January 5. Mayenne, head of the League, enters Paris, February 12, and is named lieutenant-general of the kingdom. Alliance of Henry III. with the Huguenots, April. Expedition of Drake and Norris to Portugal, April to June. Siege of Paris by the two Henries, July. Assassination of Henry 111., August 1. Henry IV. of Navarre king of France. Battle of Arques, September 21. Paris attacked by Henry IV., October 31-November 1. James VI. of Scotland marries Anne of Denmark, November 24. Patriarchate of Moscow established.

1590. Battle of lvry, March 14. Breda recovered by Prince Maurice, March. Siege of Paris by Henry IV. May 7; raised by Parma, September 9. Urban VII. pope, September 15; thirteen days. Gregory XIV. pope, December 5. Spenser’s Faerie Queen« appears. First treatise on Decimal Fractions, by Stevinus. Sidney’s A rcadia.

1591. Spanish garrison in Paris, February 12. Henry IV. condemned by the Pope,· March 1. Capture of Deventer and Zutphen by Maurice, May, June. Innocent X. pope, October 29; dies, December 30. Siege of Rouen begun by Henry IV., November. Aragonese liberties suppressed, November. Trinity College, Dublin, incorporated. Earthquakes in the Azores lasting twelve days.

1592. Clement VIII. pope, January 20. Rouen relieved by Parma, April. Death of Parma, December 3. The Falkland Islands sighted by Davies. Presbyterianism established in Scotland.

1593. Severe acts against Puritans and Popish recusants in England, February-April. Dreux taken by Henry IV., June 18. He abjures Protestantism, July 25. Gertruydenberg taken by Prince Maurice. Birth of Izaak Walton (died, 1683).

1594. Coronation of Henry IV. at Chartres, Februaιy 27. He enters Paris, March 22. Submission of the Sorbonne, April. Reduction of Groningen by Prince Maurice, July 22. Brest taken from Spaniards by French and English, November. Expulsion of the Jesuits from Paris, December 29. Rebellion of Tyrone in Ireland. Hooker’s Ecclesiastical Polity appears. Birth of Nicolas Poussin (died» 1665).

1595. Mohammed III. sultan, Januarÿ 17. Henry IV. declares war on Spain, January 17. Absolution of Henry IV. by the pope, September 17. Cambray taken by Spaniards, October 2. Dutch East India Company formed. Dutch Settlement in Java.

1596. Treaty of Folembrai between Henry IV. and Mayenne, January, puts an end to the League. Calais taken by Spaniards, April 17. Peace of Teusin, between Russia and Sweden, May 18. Alliance of England and France against Spain, May 24. Invasion of Hungary and capture of Erlau by Mohammed III., summer. Capture of Cadiz by English and Dutch forces, June 21. Archduke Maximilian defeated by Mohammed 111. at Keresztes, October 24-26. Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, founded. Birth of Descartes (died, 1650). Spitzbergen reached by Barentz.

1597. Victory of Prince Maurice over the Spaniards at Turnhout, January 22. Amiens taken by Archduke Albert, March 12, and retaken by Henry IV., September 15. Thermometer invented by Galileo before this year. Bacon’s Essays published.

1598. The Edict of Nantes, April 30. Peace of Vervins between Fiance and Spain, May 2. Philip III. king of Spain, Sept. 13.

1599. Divorce of Henry IV. from his queen Margaret, February. Essex appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, March 12. The Deccan tributary to Akbar. Imprisonment of Campanella (1599-1629). Birth of Velazquez (died, 1660). Birth of Vandyck (died, 1641). Sully appointed superintendent of finance to Henry IV. Birth of Oliver Cromwell, April 25. Birth of Blake.

1600. Giordano Bruno burnt at Rome, February 17. Prince Maurice defeats the Spaniards at Nieuport, July 2. Henry IV. declares war on Savoy, August. Gowrie conspiracy in Scotland, August 5. Marriage of Henry IV. with Mary de’ Medici, December 9. The English East India Company chartered, December 31. Birth of Calderon (died, 1681). General symbols in algebra introduced by Vieta. Zodiacal light seen by Tycho Brahe. William Gilbert's De Magnete published.

1601. Treaty of peace between France and Savoy, January 17. Execution of the earl of Essex, February 25. Siege of Ostend by Archduke Albert, July 4. Kinsale occupied by Spaniards, September.

1602. Submission of Tyrone. Execution of Marshal Biron at Paris, July 29. Culture and manufacture of silk introduced into France. Birth of Mazarin. Hamlet published.

1603. Queen Elizabeth dies, and is succeeded by James VI. of Scotland as James I. of England, March 24. Union of the two crowns. The Millenary Petition of the Puritans presented to the king, April. Ahmed I. sultan, December. The Jesuits recalled to France. Disputes of the Gomarists and Arminians in Holland. Chapman’s Iliads of Homer published (Odyssey, 1614).

1604. Hampton Court Conferences between the prelates and the Puritans, January 14-16. Treaty of peace between England and Spain, August 18. Surrender of Ostend to Spinola, September 20. James I. proclaimed King of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, October 24. French settlement in Canada. Hooker’s Ecclesiastical Polity completed.

1605. Paul V. pope, May 6. The “False Demetrius” crowned czar of Russia, summer. Death of Akbar, October 13. Jehangir succeeds him. Gunpowder Plot; arrest of Guy Fawkes, November 5. Bacon’s Advancement of Learning published. Birth of Sir Thomas Browne (died, 1682). The first part of Don Quixote published. The Mercure de France, first French periodical, begun.

1606. Venice laid under interdict by the Pope, April 17. The Jesuits expelled from Venice. Peace of £itvatorok between the emperor and the sultan, November 11. Patent for colonization of Virginia granted. Birth of Pierre Corneille (died, 1684).

1607. The Spanish fleet at Gibraltar destroyed by the Dutch, April 25. Return of Halley’s Comet observed by Kepler. University of Giessen founded.

1608. Hungary ceded by Rudolph II. to Archduke Matthias, June 29. Trial of Arminius at the Hague. The telescope invented in Holland. Birth of Clarendon (died, 1674). Birth of Milton (died, 1674). Birth of Fuller (died, 1661). Reform of Port Royal begun by Angelique Arnauld.

1609. Twelve years truce between Spain and the Netherlands, March 29. The Protestant Union of German Princes formed, May 4. Catholic League organized, July. Religious liberty for all sects conceded by the emperor, July 12. Moscow taken by the Poles. Siege of Smolensko by the Poles, November. Two edicts of Philip III. for expulsion of Moriscoes. The satellites of Jupiter discovered by Simon Marius, December; by Galileo, January 1610. Kepler’s Laws (the first and second) published. The Bank of Amsterdam founded.

1610. Assassination of Henry IV. by Ravaillac, May 14. Louis XIII. king of France; regency of Mary de’ Medici. Charter for colonization of Newfoundland, May. Hudson’s Bay discovered. Wadham College, Oxford, founded. Phases of Venus discovered by Galileo. Douay Bible published.

1611. Christian IV. of Denmark declares war on Sweden, April. Matthias king of Bohemia, May 23. Surrender of Smolensko to the Poles, July. Gustavus Adolphus king of Sweden, November 9.

The plague at Constantinople. Plantation of Ulster-First creation of baronets in England. Sun-spots discovered by Fabricius and Galileo. Congregation of the Oratory at Paris founded. Birth of Fairfax. Birth of Turenne. Authorized Version of the Bible published. The Charter House, London, incorporated.

1612. The Great Mogul authorizes English factories at Surat, Ahmedabad, &c., January 11. Death of Emperor Rudolph IL, January 20. Matthias elected, June 13. Death of Henry, prince of Wales, November 6 (born, 1593). Birth of Leighton (died, 1684). Birth of Samuel Butler (died, 1680). The pendulum applied to clock-work by Sanctorius.

1613. Marriage of Elector Palatine with Princess Elizabeth of England, February. The Romanoff dynasty in Russia founded, February. The New River, London, completed, Michaelmas. Birth of La Rochefoucauld (died, 1680). Birth of Jeremy Taylor (died, 1667). Birth of Montrose.

1614. Revolt of Condé terminated by Peace of Menehould, May 15. Last meeting at Paris of States-General before the Revolution, September 27. Invention of Logarithms by Napier of Merchiston (died, 1617). Birth of Henry More (died, 1687). Raleigh’s History of the World published. University of Groningen founded.

1615. Embassy of Sir Thomas Roe to the Great Mogul, January. The Jews again expelled from France, April. Death of Arabella Stuart in the Tower, September 27. Marriage of Louis XIII. with Anne of Austria, and of Don Philip with Elizabeth of France, November 25. Birth of Baxter (died, 1691).

1616. Death of Shakespeare,April 23 (O.S.). Death of Cervantes, April 23. The Cautionary Towns in Holland delivered up to the Dutch by James I., May 27. Cape Hom doubled by Le Maire and Schouten. Baffin’s Bay discovered. Circulation of the blood discovered by Harvey about this time. Birth of John Owen (died, 1683).

1617. Peace of Stolbowa between Sweden and Russia, February. Bacon appointed lord-keeper, March. Raleigh sails for Guiana, March. Mustapha I. sultan. Assassination of Marshal d’Ancre at Paris, April 24. The queen-mother banished to Blois, May. Ferdinand king of Bohemia, June. Execution of the wife of Marshal d’Ancre, July 8. Birth of Cudworth (died, 1688).

1618. 0thman II. sultan, Febmary 26. Arrest of Grotius and Bameveldt by States-General, February. The “Book of Sports” promulgated by James I. May 24. Archduke Ferdinand, king of Hungary, July 1. Execution of Raleigh, October 29. The duke of Lerma dismissed from office, October. Synod of Dort, November 13. Revolution in Bohemia; beginning of Thirty Years' War. Birth of Cowley (died, 1667). China invaded by Manchoos about this time. Kepler’s third Law announced. Congregation of Saint-Maur formed in France.

1619. Vanini burnt as atheist at Toulouse, February 19. Escape of Mary de’-Medici from Blois, Febmary 19. Grotius imprisoned, and Barneveldt beheaded, May. Dutch and English trade in the East Indies regulated by treaty, July 17. Ferdinand deposed by States of Bohemia, August 19; elected emperor, August 28. Capture of Presburg by Bethlen Gabor, October 20. Frederick, Elector Palatine, crowned king of Bohemia, October 25. Vienna besieged by Bethlen Gabor and the Bohemians, December. Batavia built by the Dutch. Birth of Prince Rupert, Birth of Colbert.

1620. Treaty of Ulm, July 3. Massacre of Protestants in the Valtelline, July 19 Bethlen Gabor king of Hungary, July. Invasion of the Palatinate by Spinola, autumn. The Pilgrim Fathers sail in the “Mayflower’ from Delft, September 6, and land in New England, December 11. Victory of the Turks at Jassy over Gratiani and the Poles, September 20. Battle of Prague, —the elector Frederick defeated, November 8. Bacon's Novum Organum published. Birth of John Evelyn, (died, 1706).

1621. Gregory XV. pope, Febmary 9. Impeachment of Lord Chancellor Bacon, March. Philip IV. king of Spain, March 31. Grotius escapes from prison, March 21. The Protestant Union dissolved, May. Riga taken by Gustavus Adolphus, September 21. The English Commons claim freedom of discussion, December 19. Death of Cardinal Bellarmine (born, 1542).

1622. Peace of Nikolsburg, between Bethlen Gabor and the emperor, Hungary renounced by the former, January 7. The English parliament dissolved, Febmary 9. Shah Abbas takes Baghdad, May 1. Battle of Wimpfen, May 6. 0thman II. deposed and Mustapha restored, May 19. Siege of Bergen-op-Zoom by Spinola, June to October. Heidelberg surrenders to Tilly, September 15-19. Richelieu created cardinal, September 5. Peace of Montpellier, end of war with the Huguenots, October 19. Surrender of Mannheim to Tilly, November 1. The bishopric of Paris raised to archbishopric. Birth of Molière (died, 1673). Congregatio de Propaganda Fids instituted at Rome by Gregory XV,

1623. Journey of Prince Charles of England and the duke of Buckingham to Madrid, March to October. The Valtelline occupied by papal troops, May. Urb⅝n VIII. pope, August 6. Tilly defeats Duke Christian of Brunswick at Stadtlohn, August 9. The Spanish marriage-treaty broken, off by England, December. Birth of Pascal

(died, 1662). ‘ Shakespeare's Works, the first folio, published.

1624. Monopolies declared illegal in England, February. England declares war on Spain, March 10. Richelieu becomes a member of the Council, April. Treaty of Compiegne between France and Holland, June 20. The Valtelline seized by the French, November. Pembroke College, Oxford, founded. Barbados, first English settlement in West Indies. Burton’s Anatomy of Melancholy published. Lord Herbert’s Tractatus de Veritate. Privilege of Sanctuary in England abolished.

1625. Huguenot insurrection in France, January. Charles I. king of England, March 27. Death of Maurice, prince of Orange, April 23. Charles I. marries (by proxy) Henrietta of France, May 11. Breda taken by Spinola, June 5. English expedition against Cadiz. Charles I. dissolves the parliament, August 12. Grotius De Jure Belli ac Pads published.

1626. Impeachment of Buckingham, February. Treaty of Monçon between France and Spain, March 5. Minden taken by Tilly, June 9. Charles I. dissolves his second parliament, June 15. Edict of Louis XIII, for demolition of castles in France, July 31. Göttingen taken by Tilly, August 11. Battle of Lutter,—defeat of Christian IV. of Denmark by Tilly, August 27. Birth of Madame de Sévigné (died, 1696). Birth of Robert Boyle (died, 1691).

1627. Siege of Rochelle begun, summer. Expedition of Buckingham to Isle of Rhé, July-October. The Rudolphine Tables completed by Kepler. Birth of Bossuet (died, 1704).

1628. Cromwell sits for Huntingdon in third parliament, March. Petition of Right presented to Charles I., May 28; passed, June 7. Laud bishop of London, July Assassination of Buckingham, August 23 La Rochelle taken by Richelieu, October 28. Death of Shah Abbas, December. Siege of Stralsund by Wallenstein. Birth of Bunyan (died, 1688). The Taj Mehal built.

1629. Campaign of Louis XIII. against duke of Savoy, January to June. Edict of Restitution published by the emperor, March 6. Third parliament of Charles I. dissolved, March 10. Charter granted to the Massachusetts Bay company, March. Peace between England and France, April. Peace of Lübeck, between the emperor and the king of Denmark, May 22. Montauban reduced, August. Richelieu first minister of state, November. Birth of Huyghens (died, 1695).

1630. Richelieu invades Italy, February. Gustavus Adolphus enters Germany, June. Mantua surprised by Imperialists, July 17. Wallenstein deprived of his command, August. Death of Spinola, September 25. Birth of Isaac Barrow (died, 1677). Birth of Tillotson (died, 1694). The Slide Rule invented by Oughtred.

1631. Treaty of Bernwald, —alliance of France and Sweden against the emperor, January 23. Magdeburg besieged by Tilly, March; stormed and sacked, May 20-22. Treaty of Chierasco concluded, April 6. Gustavus concludes a treaty with Elector of Brandenburg, June 11. Battle of Leipsic,—victory of Gustavus over Tilly, September 7. March of Gustavus to the Rhine, September to Christmas. Mentz taken, December 13. Wallenstein recalled, December. Great eruption of Vesuvius. Description of the Vernier published by the inventor. Transit of Mercury first observed, by Gassendi. Birth of Dryden (died, 1700).

t632. Lorraine subject to France by treaty of Vic, signed January 6. Passage of the Lech by the Swedes, Tilly wounded, April, 5. Death of Tilly, April 6. Munich entered by Gustavus, May 17. Nuremberg seized by Gustavus. Siege and capture of Maestricht by Prince Frederick Henry, August. Schomberg defeats Montmorency at Castelnaudary, September 1. Execution of Montmorency, October 30. Battle of Lützen, victory and death of Gustavus, November 16. Christina queen of Sweden. Regency of Oxenstiern. Birth of John Locke (died, 1704). Birth of Spinoza (died, 1677). Birth of Puffendorf (died, 1694). Birth of Wren (died, 1723).

1633 Union of Heilbronn, April 9 Coronation of Charles I. in Scotland, June 18. Laud archbishop of Canterbury, August. Nancy besieged and taken by and ultimately ceded to Louis XIII., September 20. The Book of Sports republished by Chai les I., October. Ratisbon taken by Duke Bernhard, November. Prynne fined, pilloried, and imprisoned, for his Histrio mastyx. Galileo condemned by the Inquisition.

1634. Lorraine annexed to* France; Parliament of Austrasia established at Metz. Wallenstein assassinated, February 25. Urbain Grandiet burnt on charge of witchcraft, August 18. Battle of Nordlingen,—victory of Imperialists over the Swedes, September 6. Writ of ship-money issued by Charles I. Treaty between the French and the Swedes, November. Siege of Heidelberg by Imperialists; raised by the French, December, Order of the Sisters of Charity founded by St Vincent de Paul. The Ammergau Passion Play instituted.

1635. Philippsburg taken by Imperialists, January. Alliance between the French and the Dutch, February. Treves surprised by Spaniards, and elector taken prisoner, March 26. France declares war on Spam, May 10. Peace of Prague, between the emperor and the elector of Saxony, May 30. The French Academy founded by Richelieu. Articles of the Church of England adopted by Irish Church. The Jardin des Plantes, Paris, founded. Norwood measures a degree of the meridian in England.

1636. John Hampden resists the imposition of ship-money. University of Utrecht founded. Birth of Boileau (died, 1711). Harvard College, U.S., founded.

1637. Ferdinand III. emperor, Feb. 15. Trial of Hampden, June 12. Prynne, Bastwick, and Burton condemned by Star Chamber, June 14. Decree of Star Chamber for regulation of printing, July 1. Book of Canons and Common Prayer issued for Scotland; disturbances on its introduction at Edinburgh, July 23. Descartes’s Discours de la Méthode published. Death of Nicholas Ferrar (born, 1593).

1638. The Solemn League and Covenant of the Scots published, March 1. General Assembly at Glasgow abolishes Episcopacy, November, December. Siege and capture of Breisach by Bernhard, December 17. Baghdad taken by the Turks, December 25. Cyrillus Lucaris (patriarch of Constantinople) put to death. Birth of Malebranche (died, 1715). Chillingworth's Religion of Protestants published.

1639. The Scots take up arms, January. Lesley takes possession of Edinburgh Castle, March 23. Pacification of Berwick, June 18. Admiral Tromp defeats Spanish Fleet in the Downs, October 11-12. Birth of Racine (died, 1699). Transit of Venus first observed by Horrox and Crabtree.

1640. The Short Parliament of Charles I. meets, April 13; dissolved, May 5. Revolt of Catalonia, June. Newcastle occupied by Scots, August 27. Turin invested by the French, May; surrenders, September 24. Last sitting of High Commission Court, October 22. The Long Parliament meets, November 3. Impeach-mentof Strafford, N ovember 11. Independence of Portugal recovered; John duke of Braganza proclaimed king, December 1. Frederick W illiarn, the ‘ ‘ Great Elector ' ’ of Brandenburg, December 1. Treaty between France and the Catalans, December 16. Jansenius publishes his Augustinus. Peruvian bark introduced into Europe. Micrometer invented by Gascoigne.

1641. Union of Catalonia with France, January 23. Ibrahim I. sultan, February. Archbishop Laud sent to the Tower, March 1. Trial of Strafford, March 22; lie is beheaded, May 12. Abolition of the Star Chamber. Visit of Charles I. to Scotland, August to November. Irish Rebellion, massacre of Protestants, October 23. The Grand Remonstrance presented to Charles I., December 1. The terms “Roundheads” and “Cavaliers ’ come into use. Malacca taken by the Dutch. The Meditationes of Descartes published.

1642. Attempted arrest of the five members by Charles Γ., January 4. Death of Mary de’ Medici, July 8. Charles I. sets up his standard at Nottingham, August 22. Perpignan surrenders to the French, September 9. Execution of Cinq-Mars for conspiracy, September 12. Roussillon taken possession of by France. Battle of Leipsic,—victory of Swedes over Imperialists, October 13. Battle of Edgehill, October 23. Oxford occupied by Charles I., October 26. Death of Richelieu, December 4. Mazarin first minister. New Zealand and Van Diemen's Land discovered by Tasman. Calculating machine invented by Pascal. Birth of Newton (died, 1727).

1643. Louis XIV. king of France, May 14; regency of Anne of Austria. Battle of Rocroi, May 19. Death of Hampden, June 24. The Assembly of Divines meets at Westminster, July 1. Bristol surrenders to Prince Rupert, July 27. Opening of Congress of Munster, July. Thionvi∏e recovered by the French, August 10 Siege of Gloucester by Charles I., August-September. Battle of Newbury, death of Lord Falkland, September 20. The Covenant taken by the House of Commons and Assembly of Divines, September 25. Philip IV. drives the French from Aragon, November. The barometer invented by Torricelli. Birth of Bishop Burnet (died, 1715). First volume of the Acta Sanctorum, by Bollandus and Henschen, published.

1644. The Swedes under Torstenson invade Denmark, January 16. The Scots enter England, January. Trial of Archbishop Laud, March-November. Battle of Marston Moor, July 2. Gravelines taken by the French, July 28. Battle of Freiburg, August 3-5. Philippsburg besieged by the French; taken, September 9. Sack of Aberdeen by Montrose, September 13-16. Second battle of Newbury, October 27. Christina assumes government of Sweden, December 18. Conquest of China by the Manchoos. Milton s Areopagitica published. Birth of William Penn (died, 1718).

1645. Archbishop Laud beheaded, January 10. Turenne defeated by General Merci at Mariendal, May 5. Battle of Naseby, June 14. Alexis czar of Russia, July 13. Peace between Sweden and Denmark, August 14. Bristol surrendered by Prince Rupert, September 10. Lesley defeats Montrose at Philiphaugh, September 13. Capture of Trêves by Turenne, November 9. Death of Olivarez (born, 1587).

1646. Charles I. surrenders to the Scots, May 5. Surrender of Oxford to the Parliament, June 24. Dunkirk taken by the French, October 12. Birth of Leibnitz (died, 1716).

1647. Charles I. given up by the Scots to the Parliament, January 30. Treaty of Ulm between France and Bavaria, March.

Surrender of Harlech Castle, the last royal post, March 30. Charles I. seized at Holmby House, June 4. Masaniello heads revolt at Naples, July 7. Death of Prince Frederick Henry of Orange. Occupation of London by the army, August 6. Another insurrection at Naples, August 21. Geoτge Fox begins to preach.

1648. Treaty of Munster between Spain and the United Provinces, recognizing independence of the latter, January 30. Royalist revolt in England, February. Tortosa stormed by Marshal Schomberg, July 12. Battle of Preston, August 17. Battle of Lens,— victory of prince of Condé over Archduke Leopold, August 20 The war of the Fronde begins, August 27. Fairfax takes Colchester, August 28. The Peace of Westphalia; close of the Thirty Years’ War, October 24. “Pride’s Purge,” December 6. The “Rump” Parliament. The pressure of the atmosphere demonstrated by Pascal’s experiment on the Puy de Dôme, September 19.

1649. Execution of Charles I., January 30. Blockade of Paris by Condé, January. Charles II. proclaimed at Edinburgh, February 5. England declared a Commonwealth, May 19. Mohammed IV. sultan, July 28. Cromwell storms Drogheda, September 12, and Wexford, October 9. Milton’s Eikonolclastes published.

1650. Rebellion of Montrose, January. Arrest of the princes of Condé, Conti, and Longueville, January 18. Execution of Montrose, May 21. Victory of Cromwell over Lesley at Dunbar, September 3. Surrender of Edinburgh Castle, December. Battle of Rethel, December 15. Cape Town founded by the Dutch. Milton’s Defensio Populi Anglicani published. First permanent settlement in Carolina. Birth of Marlborough.

1651. The States of Holland abolish office of stadtholder, January. Condé and the other princes liberated, February. Mazarin in exile, March. Catholic and Protestant leagues formed in Germany, spring. Charles invades England, August. Monk storms Dundee, September 1. Victory of Cromwell over Charles at Worcester, September 3. Flight of Charles to France, October. Navigation Act passed by English Parliament, October 9. Capitulation of Limerick to Ireton, October 27. Death of Ireton, November 26. Great inundation in Holland from bursting of dyke. Birth of Fénelon (died, 1715). Hobbes’s Leviathan published. Taylor’s Holy Living and Holy Dying.

1652. Return of Mazarin to power, January. Amnesty granted by English Parliament, February 24. War between English and Dutch begins, May. Irish Rebellion suppressed by May. Battle of the Faubourg St Antoine, Paris, July 2. England declares war on the Dutch, July 8. Mazarin again retires, August. Surrender of Dunkirk to Spaniards, September 18. Victory of Blake and Penn over the Dutch, September 28. Catalonia reunited to Spain. Victory of Van Tromp, November 28. The Liberum Veto first used in Poland.

1653. Return of Mazarin to power, February 3. Victory of Blake over Van Tromp off Portland, February 18, 19, 20. Expulsion of “The Rump” by Cromwell, April 20. Barebones’s Parliament meets, July 4. Blake destroys the Dutch fleet at the Texel, July 31. Cromwell made Lord Protector, December 16. War between Catholic and Protestant cantons of Switzerland. Walton’s Complete Angler published. John de Witt grand pensionary of Holland.

1654. Peace concluded between England and Holland, April 5. Scotland declared incorporated with England, April 12. Coronation of Louis XIV., June 7. Abdication of Christina of Sweden, June 16. Turenne relieves Arras, besieged by Spaniards, August 25. First parliament of the Protector meets, September 4. The Cossacks under protection of Russia. War between Russia and Poland, which lasts thirteen years, begins, September. Madras made seat of a presidency. Milton’s Second Defence of the People of England published. Air-pump invented by Otto von Guericke.

1655. Cromwell dissolves the parliament, January 31. Alexander VII. pope, April 7. Jamaica taken by Penn and Venables, May. CromweŨ assists the Vaudois, June. Invasion of Poland by Charles X. of Sweden, July. Treaty of alliance between the elector of Brandenburg and the Dutch, July 27. Surrender of Warsaw to Charles X., August 30; of Cracow, October 8. Treaty of aUiance between England and France, October 24. Subjugation of Prussia by Charles X., December. A satellite of Saturn discovered by Huyghens. Fuller’s Church History of Britain published. The Journal des Savanis begun.

1656. Alliance between Charles X. of Sweden and the Great Elector, June 15. Surrender of Warsaw to Poles, June 21. Warsaw recovered by Charles and the elector, July. Blake captures Spanish treasure fleet off Cadiz, September 9. Czar invades Livonia and takes Dorpat, October 26. Treaty of Liebau between Charles X. and the Great Elector, November 20. Pascal’s Lettres Provinciales published. Harrington’s Oceana. Conquests of the Dutch in Ceylon. General Post-Office, London, established.

1657. Attempt to assassinate Cromwell, January 19. Cromwell concludes treaty with France, March 23. Denmark declares war on Sweden, spring. Death of the Emperor Ferdinand III., April 2. Blake destroys the Spanish treasure ships at Santa Cruz, April 20. Cromwell declines the title of king, May 8. Treaty of Vehlau, September 19. Mardyke taken by the English and French, September 23. Walton’s Biblia Polyglotta published. Reflecting telescope constructed by Gregory. Birth of Fontenelle (died, 1757).

1658. Passage of Charles X. over the Little Belt on the ice, January 30-31; over the Great Belt, February 5-10. Treaty of Roeskild signed, March 8. Battle of the Dunes, June 14. Dunkirk taken by Turenne, June 17, and delivered over to the English. Leopold I. emperor, July 18. Charles X. renews war with Denmark, August. Aurungzebe dethrones and succeeds his father Shah Jehan, August 20. Death of Cromwell, September 3. Richard Cromwell named protector. Siege of Copenhagen by Charles X. begun, September. Surrender of Thorn to the Poles, December 21. Festival of the Sons of the Clergy instituted.

1659. Retirement of Richard Cromwell, May 25. First Convention of the Hague signed, May; second, July; third, August. Peace of the Pyrenees, betweenFrance andSpain, concluded, November 7. De Ruyter defeats the Swedes near Nyeborg, November 14, and takes Nyeborg.

1660. General Monk occupies London, February 3. Charles XI. king of Sweden, February 13. Peace of Oliva, May 3. Charles II. of England proclaimed, May 8. Entry of Charles into London, May 29. Treaty of Copenhagen, June 6. Marriage of Louis XIV. with the Infanta, June 9. The Royal Society of London founded. Episcopacy restored in England. Navigation Act re-enacted. The crown of Denmark made hereditary. Taylor’s Ductor Dubitantium published. Birth of Sir Hans Sloane (died, 1753). Death of St Vincent de Paul (bora, 1577).

1661. Exhumation of the bodies of Cromwell, Bradshaw, and Ireton, January 30. Death of Mazarin, March 9. New charter granted to East India Company, April 3. Savoy Conferences between Episcopalian and Presbyterian divines, April 15 to July 25. Execution of the marquis of Argyll, May 27. Peace of Kaτdis, between Russia and Sweden, July 1. Treaty between Dutch and Portuguese respecting Brazil, August. Episcopacy restored in Scotland, December. The Corporation Act passed. Birth of Defoe (died, 1731).

1662. Act of Uniformity passed by English Parliament, ífay 19. Licensing Act (books). Marriage of Charles II. with Catherine of Braganza, May 20. Execution of Vane, June 14. Duke of Ormond viceroy of Ireland. Nonconformist clergy driven out of the Church by Act of Uniformity, St Bartholomew’s day, August 24. Dunkirk sold to Louis XIV., and given up, November. Canal of Languedoc projected by Riquet. Birth of Bentley (died, 1742).

1663. Invasion of Hungary by the Turks, spring. Carolina granted by Charles II. to Clarendon, Monk, and others. The steam-engine suggested by Marquis of Worcester, in his Century of Inventions. The Academy of Inscriptions, Paris, founded. Guineas first coined in England. Birth of Prince Eugene. First part of Butler’s Hrιdibras published (completed, 1678). Lord Herbert’s De Religione Gentilium.

1664. Treaty of Pisa between the Pope and France, February 22. Second war between the English and Dutch begins. Battle of St Gotthard,—victory of Montecuculi over the Turks, August 1. Treaty between the emperor and the Porte, August 10. The Conventicle Act passed. The French East India Company established. The Mahratta chief Sivajee attacks Surat. The Binomial Theorem discovered by Newton. Palace of Versailles begun.

1665. England declares war against the Dutch, February 22. Battle of Solebay, June 3. Battle of Villaviciosa, June 17. Charles II. king of Spain. The Great Plague in London. The Five-Mile Act passed. The London Gazette established. John Sobieski grand marshal of Poland.

1666. Louis XIV. declares war on England, January 16. Sea-fight between English and Dutch in the Downs, June 1-4. The Dutch defeated off the North Foreland, July 25. Great Fire of London, September 2-6. The Covenanters defeated at the Pentland Hills, November 28. Academy of Sciences, Paris, founded.

1667. Louis XIV. invades the Spanish Netherlands, May. De Ruyter sails up the Thames, June-July. Clement IX. pope, June 20. Peace of Breda, end of second Dutch war, July 21. Clarendon dismissed by Charles IL, August 30. The “Cabal” ministry formed, September. Impeachment of Clarendon by the Commons, November. Paradise Lost published. Morland’s calculating machine invented. Birth of Swift (died, 1745).

1668. Secret treaty between Louis XIV. and the emperor con eluded, January. The Triple Alliance between England and the Netherlands, afterwards joined by Sweden, against France, January 23, April 25. Peace between Spain and Portugal, February 13. Conquest of Franche Comté by Louis XIV., February. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, May 2. Charles II. obtains pension from Louis XIV. Island of Bombay granted by Charles II. to East India Company. Birth of Boerhaave (died, 1738).

1669. "Eruption of Etna, March. Candia surrendered to the Turks, September 16. Locke draws up constitution for Carolina. Phosphorus discovered by Brandt. Reflecting telescope constructed by Newton. Death of Rembrandt (born, 1606).

1670. Clement X. pope, April 29. Seizure of Lorraine by Louis, September. Second Conventicle Act passed. Hudson’s Bay Com pany incorporated. Treaty between France and England, respecting Holland, December 31. Walton’s Lives published. Spener begins to hold his Collegia Pietatis (origin of Pietism). Spinoza’s Tractatus theologico-politixus published.

1671. The island of St Thomas taken possession of by the Danes. Treaty of alliance between Spain and the Dutch concluded, December. Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes published.

1672. Public treaty between France and England, February 12. Declaration of Indulgence to Nonconformists issued by Charles IL, March 15. England and France declare war on the Dutch, March-April. Treaty of Stockholm between France and Sweden, April. Conquest of Holland by Louis XIV., May-June. Battle of Southwold Bay, May 28. The office of stadtholder restored; William of Orange appointed, July 8. Massacre of the brothers De Witt, at the Hague, August 20. Birth of Addison (died, 1719). Birth oí Muratori (died, 1750).

1673. The Declaration of Indulgence withdrawn, May 8. Treaty of peace between France and elector of Brandenburg, June 16. Maestricht taken by Louis, June 30. Alliance of the Dutch with the emperor and the king of Spain, August 30. Treves taken by Vauban, September 8. Bonn taken by William of Orange, November 4-12. The French evacuate Holland, winter. John Sobieski defeats the Turks, November 10. Test Act passed.

1674. Peace between England and Holland, February 9. John Sobieski king of Poland, May 21. Reconquest of Franche Comté by Louis XIV., May-June. The Emperor Leopold declares war on France, June. The Palatinate ravaged by the French, June. Revolt at Messina, summer. Condé defeats the prince of Orange at Senef, August 11. Turenne defeats Imperialists at Entzheim, October 4. First French settlement in the East Indies (Pondicherry). Birth of Isaac Watts (died, 1748).

1675. Battle of Türkheim, Turenne drives Imperialists out of Alsace, January 5. Invasion of Brandenburg by Swedes, spring. The elector defeats the Swedes at Fehrbellin, June 28. Conferences of Nimeguen open, July. Turenne killed at Sassbach, July 27. Velocity of light discovered by Roemer. St Paul’s Cathedral begun by Wren (completed, 1710). Greenwich Observatory founded. Flamsteed astronomer royal (died, 1719). Spiritual Guide of Miguel Molinos published.

1676. Feodor 11. (or III.) czar of Russia, February 8. Secret treaty between Louis and Charles II. for annual pension signed, February 17. Death of De Ruyter at Syracuse, April 29. Maestricht invested by prince of Orange, July 8; the siege raised, August 27. Innocent XL pope, September 21. Differential thermometer invented by Sturm. Birth of Sir Robert Walpole (died, 1745). Barclay's Apology for the True Christian Divinity published.

1677. The French defeat the prince of Orange at Cassel, April 11. Marriage of the prince with Mary, daughter of James, duke of York. November 4. The Society of Sons of the Clergy incorporated. Spinoza’s Ethica published.

1678. Treaty of alliance between Charles II. and the Dutch, January 26. Another secret treaty between Charles and Louis signed, May 17. Peace of Nimeguen, between France and Holland, August 10. Accession of Spain, September 17. Invention of Popish Plot by Titus Oates, August 13. First war betλveen Russia and Turkey begins (lasts till 1682). Revolt of Hungarians under Count Tekeli. Polarization of light observed by Huyghens. First part of Bunyan’s Pilgrim s Progress published (second, 1684). Birth of Lord Bolingbroke (died, 1751).

1679. Charles II. dissolves the parliament, January 24. Peace between France and the emperor, February 5. Assassination of Archbishop Sharp of St Andrews, May 3. Duke of Monmouth defeats the Covenanters at Bothwell Bridge, June 22. Treaty of St Germain-en-Laye, between France, Sweden, and the elector of Brandenburg, June 29. Treaty of Fontainebleau between France and Denmark, September 2. Treaty of Lunden between Denmark and Sweden, September 26. Habeas Corpus Act passed. The terms “Whig’’ and “Tory” come into use. Death of Cardinal de Retz (born, 1614).

1680. Execution of Lord Stafford, December 29. The Swedish crown made absolute. A great comet excites alarm in Europe.

1681. Pennsylvania granted to William Penn, March 4. Strasburg seized by Louis XIV., September 30. Shaftesbury imprisoned on a charge of treason, July-November. Bossuet’s Discours sur Γ Histoire Universelle published. Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel published (1681-2). Birth of Young the poet (died, 1765).

1682. ĭvan V. and Peter I. (the Great) joint sovereigns of Russia, June 25. Bombardment of Algiers by the French, August and September. Chelsea Hospital founded.

1683. Death of Shaftesbury, January 21. Alliance of Warsaw between the emperor and the king of Poland, March 31. London deprived of its charters by Charles 11., June 12. The Ryehouse plot discovered, June. Vienna besieged by the Turks under Kara Mustapha, July 14. Execution of Lord William Russell, July 21. John Sobieski defeats the Turks and relieves Vienna, September 12. The French i⅛Vade the Netherlands and take Courtray and Dixmuyde, November. Execution of Algernon Sidney, December 7. Execution of Kara Mustapha, December 25. The great frost of thirteen weeks in England. Birth of Conyers Middleton (died, 1750).

1684. Oudenarde bombarded by the French, March. Genoa bombarded by the French, May. Luxembourg taken by Marshal Créqui, June 4. The Holy League against the Turks formed. Persecution of Huguenots; the dragonnades ordered by Louvois. Truce of Ratisbon, August 15. Siamese embassyreceived by Louis. Differential calculus invented by Leibnitz. Birth of Berkeley (died, 1753).

1685. James II. king of England, February 6. Graham of Claverhouse persecutes the Covenanters, spring. Insurrection of Argyll in Scotland, May. The doge of Genoa submits to Louis, at Paris, May 15. Insurrection of the duke of Monmouth, June. Trial and imprisonment of Baxter, June. Earl of Argyll executed, June 30. Battle of Sedgemoor, July 6. Monmouth beheaded, July 15. The “Bloody Assizes” of Judge Jeffreys, August and September. Campaign of Imperialists against Turks in Hungary. Revocation of Edict of Nantes, October 22. Molinos, founder of the Quietists, arrested, and his Spiritual Guide condemned by the Inquisition. Birth of Handel (died, 1759).

1686. James II. dispenses with the Test Act. League of Augsburg against France, July 9. Mass publicly celebrated at Oxford, August. Capture of Buda by Imperialists, September 2. Conquests of Venetians in the Morea. School of Saint-Cyr founded. Death of Maimbourg (born, 1620).

1687. Tyrconnel lord deputy of Ireland, January. Declarations of Indulgence by James IL, February and April. Reception of papal nuncio by James, July 3. Battle of Mohacz, August 12. Athens surrendered to Venetians, September 29. The kingdom of Hungary made hereditary in house of Austria,October. Soliman III. sultan, November 9. Mazeppa hetman of the Cossacks. Newton's Principia published. La Bruyère's Caractères. Dryden’s The Hind and the Panther.

1688. Declaration of Indulgence by James IL, April 25. Trial of the seven bishops, June. Belgrade taken by the Imperialists, September 6. Louis declares war on the empire, September 24. Avignon seized by the French, October. The pope excommunicates the parliament of Paris. Landing of λVilliam, prince of Orange, at Torbay, November 5. Louis declares war on the Netherlands, November 26. The English Revolution. Flight of James IL, December 11. Birth of Pope (died, 1744). Birth of: Nadir Shah. Bossuet’s Histoire des Variations des Églises Protestantes published.

1689. Meeting of Convention Parliament, January 22. The emperor declares war on France, January 24. Declaration of Right accepted, and William and Mary declared king and queen of Engand, February 13; of Scotland, April 11. Landing of James II. in Ireland, March. Louis declares war on Spain, April 15. Episcopacy abolished in Scotland, April. First Mutiny Act passed, April. Siege of Londonderry by James, April 20; the town relieved, July 30. Alliance of the emperor with Dutch Republic, May 12 (the “Grand Alliance,” joined by William III., December 30, and by Spain, June 6, 1690). William declares war on France, May 17. Toleration Act passed, May 24. Louis declares war on England, June 25. Battle of Killiekrankie, death of Dundee, July27. Alexander VIII. pope, October 6. Bill of Rights passed, November 2. Resignation of Ivan, Peter I. czar alone. Fort St David, Madras, built. Birth of Richardson, the novelist (died, 1761). Birth of Montesquieu (died, 1755). Transit instrument invented by Roemer. Pompeii discovered.

1690. Sea-fight off Beachy Head,—defeat of English and Dutch fleet by the French, June 30. Battle of the Boyne, July 1. Battle of Fleurus, July 1. Limerick besieged by William III., August 8- 30. Savoy joins the Grand Alliance, October 20. Locke’s Essay concerning Human Understanding published. Death of Robert Barclay (born 1648).

1691. Nonjuring bishops deprived of their sees, February 1. Ahmed II. sultan, June. Innocent XII. pope, July 12. Battle of Aghrim, July 12. Death of Louvois, July 16. Battle of Salankemen, Mustapha Köprili defeated and killed, August 19. Siege of Limerick by General Ginkell formed, August 25. Capitulation and treaty of Limerick, October 3.

1692. Marlborough dismissed, January 10. Massacre of Glencoe, February 13. Battle of La Hogue, May 19. Namur taken by Louis, June 5. Battle of Steinkirk, August 3. Birth of Bisiιop Butler (died, 1752).

1693. Sea-fight off Cape St Vincent, English under Rooke defeated by Admiral Tourville, June 29. Battle of Neerwinden (or Landen), July 19. Pondicherry taken by the Dutch, September 5. The Palatinate overrun by the French. Catinat defeats duke of Savoy at Marsaglia, October 4. St Malo bombarded by the English, November 29. QuesnqΓs Réflexions Morales published.

1694. Bombardment of Dieppe and Havre by the English, July; of Dunkirk and Calais, September. Death of Archbishop Tillotson, November 22. Death of Queen Mary, December 28. The Triennial Act passed. The Bank of England incorporated. The Dictionnaire de Γ Académie Française published. Birth of Voltaire (died, 1778.) University of Halle founded.

1695. Death of Marshal Luxembourg, January 4« Mustapha II.

sultan, January 27. Fénelon archbishop of Cambray, February. Bombardment of Brussels by Marshal Villeroi, August. Namur taken by William III., August 4; the citadel, September 1. Severe laws against Roman Catholics passed by Irish parliament, autumn. Censorship of the press in England ceases. Imprisonment of Madame Guyon. Death of Pierre Nicole (born, 1625).

1696. Assassination plot against William III., Febmary 15. Calais bombarded by Benbow, March. Death of John Sobieski, June 17. Azoff taken by Czar Peter, July 28. Treaty of peace between France and Savoy, August 29. Bayle’s Dictionnaire historique et critique published. Greenwich Hospital begun by Wren (finished, 1705). Asisnto treaty between Spain and Portugal. Birth of Marshal Saxe.

1697. Charles XII. king of Sweden, April 16. Barcelona besieged by the French; taken, August 10. Battle of Zenta, victory of Prince Eugene over the Turks, September 11. Peace of Ryswick, September 20. Czar Peter in England. St Paul’s Cathedral opened, December 2. Dryden’s translation of the Aendd published.

1698. First “Partition Treaty” between France, England, and Holland, for partition of Spanish dominions on the death of Charles IL, October 11. Fort William, Calcutta, built. Darien Company incorporated. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge and Society for Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts founded. French settlement on the Mississippi. Birth of Metastasio (died, 1782). Birth of Bishop Warburton (died, 1779).

1699. Peace of Carlowitz, between the Porte and the emperor, the king of Poland, and the republic of Venice, concluded, January 26. Death of the elector of Bavaria, Febmary. Frederick IV. king of Denmark, August 25. Treaty of alliance between Czar Peter and Augustus II. of Poland against Sweden, November 21. Dampier’s expedition of discovery in the South Seas, 1699-1701. Fénelon’s Aventures de Télémaque published.

1700. Second Partition Treaty signed, March 13. Siege of Copenhagen by Charles XII., August. Peace of Travendahl, August 18. Czar Peter declares war on Sweden, September 1. Charles II. of Spain appoints the duke of Anjou his successor, October 2. Philip V. (duke of Anjou), the first Bourbon king of Spain, proclaimed at Fontainebleau, November 16; at Madrid, November 24. Treaty of the Crown between the emperor and the elector of Brandenburg, November 16. Clement XL pope, November 23. Battle of Narva, November 30. Birth of James Thomson, (died, 1748). Birth of Zinzendorf (died 1760).

1701. Frederick III., elector of Brandenburg, king of Prussia, January 18. Order of the Black Eagle founded, January. Marlborough commander-in-chief in Holland, June 1. War of the Spanish succession begins, summer. Second Grand Alliance formed between the emperor, William III., and the Dutch Republic, September 7. Death of James IL, September 16; his son recognised as king of England by Louis XIV. Courland occupied by Charles XII. Birth of Boscowich (died, 1787).

1702. Act of Settlement (Hanoverian succession) passed, Febmary. William III. died; Anne queen of Great Britain, March 8. England declares war against France and Spain, May 4. Warsaw taken by Charles XII., May 24. Insurrection of the Camisards in the Cevennes, summer. Charles XII. defeats the Poles at Clissow, July 20, and enters Cracow. Cadiz attacked by English and Dutch, August. Spanish fleet at Vigo, destroyed by allies, October 12. Battle of Friedlingen, October 14. Liege taken by Marlborough, October 23. Clarendon’s History of the Grand Rebellion published. Birth of Philip Doddridge (died, 1751).

1703. Ratisbon seized by elector of Bavaria, March. Battle of Pultusk, May 1. The Methuen treaty concluded, May 6. Bonn taken by Marlborough, May 15. Archduke Charles takes title of king of Spain, September 12. Ahmed III. sultan, September. Battle of Hochstädt, September 20. Surrender of Thom to Charles XIL, October 15. The “Great Storm” in England, November 26- December 1. St Petersburg founded. Queen Anne’s Bounty established. Order of the Thistle revived. Death of Samuel Pepys (born, 1632). Birth of Jonathan Edwards (died, 1758). Birth of John Wesley (died, 1791).

1704. Frederick Augustus of Poland deposed, Febmary; Stanislas Leczinski elected king, July. Dorpat taken by Czar Peter, July 13. Gibraltar taken by Admiral Rooke, July 24. Narva taken by Czar Peter, August 9. Battle of Blenheim (or Hochstädt), August 13. Newton’s Optics published. Swift’s Tale of a Tub.

1705. Invasion of Courland by Czar Peter, February. Siege of Gibraltar by French and Spaniards raised, and French squadron destroyed by Admiral Leake, March. Joseph I. emperor, May 5. Expedition of earl of Peterborough and Sir Cloudesley Shovel to Spain, May. Battle of Cassano, August 16. Barcelona invested by English, August; surrenders, October 4. Invasion of Silesia by Charles XII., September 1. Mittau taken by Peter, September. Peace between Sweden and Poland, November 18. Newcomen’s steam-engine patented. Composition of light discovered by Newton. Death of Spener (born, 1635). Birth of Abraham Tucker (died, 1774).

1706. Battle of Fraustadt, Febmary 13. Turin invested by the French, May. Marlborough gains possession of Brabant, May-October. Battle of Ramillies, May 12. Madrid entered by English and Portuguese, June 24. Philip recovers Madrid, August 5. Eugene defeats the French before Turin, and raises the siege, September 7. Invasion of Saxony by Charles XII., September 16. Peace of Altranstädt, between Charles XII. and Frederick Augustus, who renounces the throne of Poland, September 24. Milan entered by English and duke of Savoy, September 24. Birth of Franklin (died, 1790). Death of Bayle (born, 1647). Tindal’s Rights of the Christian Church Asserted published (burnt by order of House of Commons, 1710).

1707. Act of Union passed by Scots parliament, January 16; by English parliament, March 6; comes into operation, May 1. Death of Aumngzebe, Febmary 21. Battle of Almanza, April 14. Invasion of France by Eugene and the duke of Savoy, June 30. Toulon attacked by the allies, July 17. National flag of Great Britain appointed, July. Invasion of Russia by Charles XII., September. The kingdom of Naples subjugated by Imperialists, September 30. Execution of Patkul, October 10. First parliament of Great Britain meets, October 23. Capture of Lerida by the French, November 11. Calcutta made the seat of a presidency. Academy of Sciences, Berlin, founded. Watts’s Hymns published. Birth of Linnaeus (died, 1778). Birth of Buffon (died, 1788). Birth of Fielding (died, 1754). Birth of Euler (died, 1783).

1708. Attempted descent on Scotland by the Pretender James, March. Suspension of Habeas Corpus Act, March-October. Ghent and Brages surrender to the French, July. Battle of Oudenarde, July 11. Sardinia surrenders to Sir John Leake, August. Peter defeats the Swedes at Liesna, September 28. Death of Prince George of Denmark, October 28. Lille taken by the allies, October; the citadel surrenders, December. Birth of Haller (died, 1777). Birth of Chatham (died, 1778).

1709. Alliance against Charles XII., June-October. Tournay taken by Marlborough and Eugene, June 30. Battle of Pultowa, —the power of Sweden broken, July 8. Charles XII. retires to Bender. Frederick Augustus restored to throne of Poland, July. Battle of Malplaquet, September 11. Siege of Mons by the allies, September 25; surrender, October 20. First Barrier Treaty between Great Britain and States-General of Holland, October 29. Birth of Johnson (died, 1784).

1710. Port Royal buildings demolished by decree of Louis X1V., January. Trial of Dr Sacheverell, February-March. The Danes driven out of Sweden by Stenbock, March 10. Conferences of Gertmydenberg open, March; close, July. Douay taken by the allies, June 26. Battle of Saragossa, August 20. Charles III. enters Madrid, September 28. The sultan declares war on the czar, November. Philip V. restored, December. Conquest of Carelia and Livonia. The South Sea Company founded. Berkeley’s Prindples of Human Knowledge published. Leibnitz’s Théodicée. Matthew Henry’s Exposition of the Old and New Testaments. Birth of Thomas Reid (died, 1796). Birth of Pergolesi (died, 1736).

1711. Peter declares war against Turkey, January 25. Girona taken by the French, January 31. Death of the dauphin, April 14. Death of the Emperor Joseph, April 18. English expedition against Canada, May to October. Harley Lord High Treasurer, May. Peter compelled to make peace with the Turks, July 21. Marlborough takes Bouchain, August. Charles III. quits Spain, September, and is elected emperor (Charles VI.), October 12. Marlborough deprived of all his offices, December. The Spectator published (1711-1712 and 1714). Birth of Hume (died, 1776). Birth of Kaunitz (died, 1794).

1712. The Duke of Ormond appointed commander-in-chief of British forces, January 1. Conferences for peace opened at Utrecht, January 29. Quesnoy taken by Eugene, July 4. Suspension of arms between England and France, July 17. Siege of Landrecies by Imperialists; raised by the French, August 21. Philip V. renounces his claim to crown of France, November. Birth of J. J Rousseau (died, 1778).

1713. Altona burnt by General Stenbock, January 9. Second Barrier Treaty, January 30. Frederick William I. king of Prussia, February 25. The peace of Utrecht, March 31. Pragmatic Sanction published by the emperor, April 13. Stenbock suιτenders to· the allies, May 16. Clarendon Press, Oxford, established. Herculaneum discovered. Birth of Diderot (died, 1784). Birth of Sterne (died, 1768). Birth of I∣acaille (died, 1762).

1714. Peace of Rastadt between France and the emperor, March 6. George I. king of England, August 1. Marriage of Philip V. with Elizabeth Farnese, September 16. Escape of Charles XII. to Sweden, November. Birth of Vattel (died, 1767). Birth of Whitefield (died, 1770). Imperial Library, St Petersburg, founded.

1715. War renewed between Sweden and Prussia, April. Impeachment of Bolingbroke, Oxford, and Ormond, June. The Riot Act passed, July 20. Louis XV. king of France, September 1. The regency seized by duke of Orleans. Jacobite Rebellion, James III. proclaimed by earl ot Mar at Braemar, September 6. Ministry of Walpole, from October 10. Battle of Slιeriffmuir (Dunblane), November 13. Battle of Preston, November 12-13. Third Barrier Treaty between the emperor, Great Britain, and the States-General of Holland, November 15. The Morea reconquered by Turks. Treaty of commerce between Great Britain and Spain, December 15. Siege of Stralsund begun, October; it surrenders to the Prussians, December 22. Gil Blas published. Pope’s Homer's Iliad (1715- 1720). Birth of Condillac (died, 1780).

1716. Alliance between Great Britain and Holland, February 17. Execution of the Earl of Derwentwater and Lord Kenmure, February 24. Charles XII. invades Norway, March. Surrender of Wismar to Prussians, April 19. The Mississippi Scheme projected by Law, May. The Septennial Act passed, May 7. Alliance between Great Britain and the emperor, May 25. Turks defeated by Eugene at Peterwardein, August 5. The Perpetual Peace proclaimed at Warsaw, November 3. Sinking fund for extinction of national debt established. Birth of Garrick (died, 1779). Birth of Thomas Gray (died, 1771).

1717. Triple Alliance between France, England, and Holland, January 4. Dismissal of Walpole, April 10. Visit of Czar Peter to Paris, May. Treaty of Amsterdam between France, Russia, and Prussia, August 4. Turks defeated by Eugene at Belgrade, August 16. Sardinia invaded by Spaniards, August-October. Eruption of Vesuvius, described by Berkeley. Birth of Horace Walpole (died, 1797). Birth of D’Alembert (died, 1783).

1718. Invasion of Sicily by Spaniards, July 1. Peace of Passaro-wicz, July 21. Byng’s expedition to the Mediterranean, summer. The Quadruple Alliance between Great Britain, France, and the emperor, joined by Holland, August 2. Siege of Fredrikshall by Charles XII., November. Death of Charles, December 11. England declares war on Spain, December 27.

1719. Retreat of Swedes from Norway, January. France declares war against Spain, January 10. Execution of Baron Gortz, March 13. Capitulation of Fontarabia to Marshal Berwick, June 18. Capitulation of St Sebastian, August 19. Capture of Vigo by the English, October 21. Treaty of Stockholm between Great Britain and Sweden, November 20. Dismissal of Cardinal Alberoni, December 5. Robinson Crusoe published. Montfaucon’s Antiquité Expliqueé. Watts’s Psalms of David.

1720. Accession of Spain to the Quadruple Alliance, January 25. Duke of Savoy becomes king of Sardinia. Treaty between Denmark and Sweden, June 12. Failure of the Mississippi Scheme, July. Break-up of the South Sea Scheme, autumn. Birth of Charles Edward Stuart, December 31. Birth of William Collins (died, 1756).

1721. Second administration of Sir Robert Walpole begins, April 4. Innocent XIII. pope, May 8. Treaty of Nystadt, between Sweden and Russia, September 10; cession of Livonia and Ingria to Russia. Peter I. emperor of all the Russias, November. The see of Vienna made an archbishopric. Birth of Akenside (died, 1770). Birth of Robertson, historian (died, 1793). Birth of Smollett (died, 1771).

1722. Jacobite plot in England, May. Suspension of Habeas Corpus Act, October. Bishop Atterbury sent to the Tower, August. Invasion of Persia by Peter, summer. Conquest of Persia by the Ghiljeis completed, October. Coronation of Louis XV., October 25. Moravian settlement at Herrnhut founded by Count von Zinzendorf.

1723. Buda burnt, March 28. Death of Cardinal Dubois, August 10. Death of Regent Orléans, December 2. War between Turkey and Persia. Treaty between Peter I. and Prince Thomas for cession of several provinces. Academy of Sciences of St Petersburg founded. Birth of Sir Joshua Reynolds (died, 1792). Birth of Adam Smith (died, 1790). Birth of Blackstone (died, 1780).

1724. Abdication of Philip V. in favour of his son Don Louis, January 8. Coronation of Catherine, empress of Russia, May 7. Benedict XIII. pope, May 29. Treaty of peace between Russia and Turkey, July 8. On death of Don Louis, Philip resumes the crown, September 6. Eruption of Hecla. Voltaire’s Henriade published. Rapin’s Histoire d'Angleterre. Swift’s Drapier' s Letters. Wollaston’s Religion of Nature Delineated. Fahrenheit’s thermometer invented. Birth of Kant (died, 1804).

1725. Death of Peter the Great, February 8. Congress of Cambray breaks up, April. Treaty of Vienna between the emperor and Philip V. signed, April 30. The Hanover treaty between England, France, and Prussia against the Vienna treaty, September 3. Marriage of Louis with Maria Leczinski, September 5. Order of St Alexander Newsky founded. Vico’s Scienza Nuova published. Flamsteed’s Historia Coelestis Britannica. Pope’s Homer s Odyssey. Birth of Clive (died, 1774). Birth of Semler (died, 1794).

1726. Alliance between Russia and the empire, August 6. Earthquake at Palermo, August 26. Travels of Gιιlliver published. Thomson’s Seasons (1726-1730). Birth of John Howard (died, 1790). Birth of Christian Friedrich Schwarz (died, 1798). Death of Kneller (born, 1648).

1727. Siege of Gibraltar by Spaniards, February. Peter II. emperor of Russia, May 27. Preliminaries of general peace signed at Paris, May 31. George II. king of England, July 10. Gay’s Beggar's Opera produced. Aberration of light discovered by Bradley. First part of Lardner’s Credibility of the Gospel History published (completed, 1757). Birth of Gainsborough (died, 1788).

1728. Congress of Soissons, June 14. Behring’s Strait discovered. Rise of Methodism. Birth of Goldsmith (died, 1774). Birth of John Hunter (died, 1793). Birth of Joseph Black (died, 1799). Sect of Glassites (Sandemanians) founded. The Dunciad published.

1729. Revolt of Corsica against the Genoese. Peace of Seville, between Great Britain, France, and Spain, November 9. Accession of Holland, November 21. Birth of Lessing (died 1781). Death of Samuel Clarke (born, 1675). Death of Sir Richard Steele (born, 1671).

1730. Ashraf of Persia defeated and killed by Kouli Khan (Nadir Shah), January; Tamasp restored. Anne empress of Russia, January 30. Clement XII. pope, July 12. Earthquake in China, September 30. Christian VI. king of Denmark, October 13. Mahmoud I. sultan, October 16. Birth of Burke (died, 1797). Birth of Josiah Wedgwood (died, 1795). Birth of Suwaroff (died, 1800). TindaΓs Christianitι ∣ as Old as the Creation published. Calmet’s Dictionnaire historique et critique de la Bible.

1731. Second Treaty of Vienna, March 16. Accession of Spain, July 22. Kouli Khan defeats Turks at Hamadan. The English language ordered to be used in all courts of justice. Voltaire’s Lettres philosophiques published (condemned to be burnt, 1734). Birth of Cowper (died, 1800). Birth of Churchill (died, 1764). Birth of Henry Cavendish (died, 1810).

1732. Treaty between Empress Anne and Koιιli Khan, January. Pragmatic sanction guaranteed by Diet of the empire, January 11. Oran retaken by Spaniards, July. Deposition of Shah Tamasp by Kouli Khan, August. Berkeley’s Minute Philosopher published. Birth of Necker (died, 1804). Birth of Lalande (died, 1807). Birth of Washington. Birth of Warren Hastings. Birth of Haydn (died, 1809).

1733. Death of Frederick Augustus II. of Poland, February 1; Stanislas proclaimed king, September 12, supported by France and Spain; Frederick Augustus, elector of Saxony, elected, October 5, supported by the emperor, and by Russia. Louis XV. declares war against the emperor, October 10. Capture of Kehl by Marshal Berwick, October 19. Treaty of alliance between France, Spain and Sardinia, October 25. Stanislas takes refuge at Dantzic. Family compact between Philip V. and Louis XV., November. Conquest of the Milanese by the French, November-January, 1734. Pope’s Essay on Man published. Birth of Bishop Horsley (died, 1806). Birth of Priestley (died, 1804).

1734. Siege of Dantzic by Russians, March; surrendered, July 9. Treves taken by the French, May 8. Invasion of Naples by Spaniards, May. Battle of Bitonto,-defeat of Imperialists, May 25. Marshal Berwick killed before Philippsburg, June 12. Death of Marshal Villars, June 17. Imperialists defeated at Parma, June 29. Surrender of Philippsburg to French, July 18. Battle of Guastalla,—Imperialists defeated, September 19. Conquest of Naples completed, November 24. Birth of Romney (died, 1802). Birth of Mesmer (died, 1815).

1735. Don Carlos crowned king of the Two Sicilies (Charles III.), July 3. Preliminaries of peace between France and the emperor signed at Vienna, October 3. The Systema Naturae of Linnaeus published. Expedition of French savants to Peru to measure a degree of the meridian (they return in 1743).

1736. Abdication of Stanislas, January 27. Marriage of Maria Theresa of Austria with Francis of Lorraine, February 12. Kouli Khan proclaimed king of Persia (Nadir Shah), February 26. Porteous riots at Edinburgh, April 14 and September 7. Spain accedes to treaty of peace, April 15. War between Russia and Turkey renewed, April. Death of Prince Eugene, April 27. Azoff taken by the Russians, July 1. Treaty of peace between Nadir Shah and the Porte, July. Tuscany occupied by the Imperialists, December. Steamvessel patenteed by Hulls. Butler’s Analogy published. Birth of Horne Tooke (died, 1812). Birth of Prince Potemkin (died, 1791). Birth of Lagrange (died, 1813). Birth of James Watt (died, 1819).

1737. The emperor makes war on Turkey, July. OczakofΓ taken by Russians, July. Death of Queen Caroline of England, December 1. University of Göttingen opened. Whiston’s Josephus published. Birth of Gibbon (died, 1794). Birth of Charles Hutton (died, 1823). Birth of Galvani (died, 1798).

1738. Candahar taken by Nadir Shah, March. Russian invasion of the Crimea renewed. Orsova taken by Turks, August 9. Alliance between France and Sweden, November 10. Treaty of Vienna between France and the emperor; cession of Lorraine to France, November 18. Nadir Shah declares war on the Great Mogul, and seizes Ghazni, Cabul, and Peshawur. Handel’s Israel in Egypt produced. Birth of William Herschel (died, 1822). Birth of Benjamin West (died, 1820). Hume’s Treatise of Human Nature published. Warburton's Divine Legation of Moses (1738- 1741). Rollin’s Histoire Ancienne completed. Solar microscope invented by Lieberkühn.

1739. The Great Mogul defeated and captured by Nadir Shah, February 9. Delhi entered, March 8. The Mogul restored and made tributary, April. Subsidy treaty between Great Britain and Denmark, March 25. Siege of Belgrade by Turks. Capture of Choczim by Russians, August 29. Capture of Jassy, September 14. Peace of Belgrade between the emperor and the Porte, September 18. England declares war against Spain, October 30. Peace between Russia and the Porte, November. Porto Bello taken by Admiral Vernon, November 22. Birth of Dumouriez (died, 1823). Foundling Hospital, London, established by Thomas Coram. Whitefield begins open-air preaching.

1740. Frederick IL, the Great, king of Prussia, May 31. Belgrade restored to Turkey, June. Benedict XIV. pope, August 17. Death of the Emperor Charles VI. October 20. Under the Pragmatic sanction his daughter Maria Theresa, succeeds as queen of Hungary and Bohemia; opposed by elector of Bavaria. Ivan VI. emperor of Russia, October 29. Invasion of Bokhara and Kharismia by Nadir Shah. Frederick II. invades Silesia, December 16. Birth of Boswell (died, 1795).

1741. Battle of Mollwitz, victory of Frederick II. over Austrians, April 10. Cartagena attacked by Admiral Vernon, April 27. Treaty of Nymphenburg between Spain and Bavaria, May. Alliance between George II. and Maria Theresa, June 24. Coronation of Maria Theresa as queen of Hungary, June 25. Elector of Bavaria invades Austrian dominions, end of June. Sweden declares war on Russia, July 24. Frederick II. takes Breslau, August 10. Lower Austria seized by elector of Bavaria, October. Capture of Neiss by Prussians, October 31. Capture of Prague by Bavarians and allies, November 26. Revolution in Russia; Ivan VI. deposed, December 6; Elizabeth Petrowna proclaimed empress, December 7. Spanish troops sent to Italy, December. Stockholm Academy of Sciences, founded. Middleton’s Life of Cicero published. Birth of Lavater (died, 1801). Death of Rollin (born, 1661).

1742. Elector of Bavaria chosen emperor, as Charles VII., January 24. Fall of Walpole, February 1. Munich taken possession of by Austrians, February 13. Frederick II. invades Moravia and Bohemia, March-April. France declares war against the queen of Hungary, England, and Holland, July 3. Treaty of peace at Berlin, July 28. Capitulation of Swedish army to Russians, September 4. Alliance between Great Britain, Prussia, and Holland (Treaty of Westminster), November. Treaty of Moscow, between Great Britain and Russia, December 11. Retreat of French under Belle-Isle from Prague to Egra, December 16-26. Handel’s Messiah produced. Young’s Night Thoughts (1742-1746). Fielding’s Joseph Andrews. Robins’s New Principles of Gunnery. Hume’s Essays (1742-1752). Centigrade thermometer invented by Celsius. Birth of Blücher (died, 1819).

1743. Death of Cardinal Fleury, January 29. Munich again taken by Austrians, June 12. Battle of Dettingen, June 27. Treaty of Abo, between Russia and Sweden, August 17. Broad Bottom administration formed by Pelham, August. Ingolstadt taken by Austrians, September 12. Treaty of Worms, between Great Britain, the queen of Hungary, and the king of Sardinia, September 23. Secret treaty (second “Family Compact”) between France and Spain, October 25. War between Nadir Shah and the Turks. Mosul besieged, October. Academy of Sciences, Copenhagen, and University of Erlangen, founded. Birth of Lavoisier (died, 1794). Birth of Paley (died, 1805). Birth of Condorcet (died, 1794). Birth of Jefferson (died, 1826).

1744. Unsuccessful attempt of Charles Edward to make a descent on England, Febmary. Sea-fight between English and French and Spanish fleets off Toulon, Febmary 22. Louis XV. declares war against England, March 15; against queen of Hungary, April 26. Louis invades Flanders, May. Union of Frankfort, between the emperor, the king of Pmssia, the elector Palatine, and the king of Sweden, May 22. Secret treaty beween Frederick II. and France, June 5. Frederick II. invades Bohemia, (second Silesian war), August. Capture of Prague by Frederick, September 16. Capture of Munich by the French, October 16. Prague evacuated by Prassians, November 26. Anson’s voyage round the world completed, June. Great eruption of Cotopaxi. First Wesleyan Conference held. Akenside’s Pleasures of Imagination published. Euler’s Theoria Motuum. Birth of Marat. Birth of Herder (died, 1803).

1745. Treaty of Warsaw, between the elector of Saxony, Great Britain, the queen of Hungary, and States-General, January 8. Death of Charles VII., January 20. Peace of Fuessen, between the elector of Bavaria and queen of Hungary, April 22. Treaty between France, Spain, Naples, and the Genoese, May 7. Battle of Fontenoy, May 11. Capture of Cape Breton by the English, June 26. Jacobite rebellion; Charles Edward lands in Scotland, July 23. Secret treaty between Great Britain and Pmssia, August 26. Francis I., grand duke of Tuscany, elected emperor, September 13. James VIII. proclaimed at Edinburgh, September 17. Battle of Prestonpans, September 21. Carlisle taken by the Pretender, November 15. Frederick II. invades Saxony, November. Derby reached by the Pretender, December 4. Sun∙ender of Dresden to Frederick IL, December 18. Milan entered by the Spaniards, December 19. Charles Edward retreats to Scotland, December 20. Frederick concludes treaties of Dresden with Saxony and Austria, December 25. Swedenborg’s De Cultu et Amore Dei published. Wahhab begins to propagate his doctrines. Birth of Volta (died, 1826).

1746. Battle of Falkirk, January 17. Brussels taken by Marshal Saxe, February 20. Battle of Culloden, April 16; end of the rebellion. Antwerp taken by Marshal Saxe, May 19. Ferdinand VI. king of Spain, July 9. Frederick V. king of Denmark, August 6. Execution of Lords Balmerino and Kilmarnock, August 18. Genoa bombarded by English fleet, surrenders to Austrians, September 6. The French and Spaniards driven out of Italy, September. Madras capitulates to the French, September 19. Namur taken by the French, September 19. Earthquake at Lima, October 28. Austrians driven from Genoa, December 10. Frederician Code published. Handel’s Judas Maccaboeus produced. Hervey’s Meditations. Birth of Sir William Jones (died, 1794). Birth of Pestalozzi (died, 1846.)

1747. Lord Lovat beheaded, April 9. Invasion of Brabant by the French, April. William of Nassau appointed stadtholder of the Netherlands, May 4. Admiral Anson defeats French fleet off Finisterre, May 14. Commodore Fox captures French West India fleet, June 16. Nadir Shah assassinated, June. Charles Edward escapes to France, September. Bergen-op-Zoom taken by the French, September 16. Admiral Hawke defeats French fleet off Belle Isle, October 14. University of St Petersburg founded. Origin of the Shakers about this time. Birth of Dr Parr (died, 1825). Birth of Canova (died, 1822). Death of David Brainerd (born, 1718).

1748. Maastricht invested by the French, April 13; surrenders, May 7. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, October 18. Centenary of Peace of Westphalia celebrated at Hamburg, October 25. Invasion of India by Afghans. Montesquieu’s Esprit des Lois published. R ichardson’s Clarissa Harlowe. Smollett’s Roderick Random. Handel's Solomon produced. Birth of Jeremy Bentham (died, 1832). Birth of J. L. David, painter (died, 1825).

1749. Flanders and Brabant evacuated by the French, January-February. Cape Breton restored to France, June. Eruption of Vesuvius, June-August. Madras restored to the English, September. War of succession in the Carnatic. Swedenborg’s Arcana Coelestia begun (completed, 1756). Middleton’s Free Inquiry published. Birth of Mirabeau. Birth of Alfieri (died, 1803). Birth of Laplace (died, 1827). Birth of Goethe (died, 1832). Birth of C. J. Fox (died, 1806). Birth of Tippoo Saib (died, 1823). Birth of Jenner (died, 1823).

1750. Treaty of Madrid between Great Britain and Spain, October 5. Death of Marshal Saxe, November 30. Westminster Bridge opened. Fielding’s Tom Jones published. Johnson’s Rambler, 1750-1752. Baumgarten’s Aesthetica.

1751. Death of Frederick, prince of Wales, March 20. Adolphus Frederick king of Sweden, April 6. Arcot taken by Clive, August 31. Publication of Diderot’s Encyclopédie begun (completed, 1765). Philosophia Botanica of Linnaeus. Birth of Lord Eldon (died, 1838). Birth of R. B. Sheridan (died, 1816). Birth ol Voss (died, 1826). Society of Antiquaries of London incorporated.

1752. The New Style adopted in Great Britain, January 1. Conquest of the Punjab by Afghans. Franklin proves identity of lightning and electricity. Birth of Legendre (died, 1833). Birth of J. G. Eichhorn (died, 1827). Death of Whiston (born, 1667). Birth of Madame D’Arblay (died, 1840). Birth of Blumenbach (died, 1840).

1753. The British Museum founded. Wesley’s Hymns published. Birth of Dugald Stewart (died, 1828). Birth of William Roscoe (died, 1831). Birth of Carnot (died, 1823). Birth of Thomas Bewick (died, 1828).

1754. 0thman III. sultan, December 13. Peace between French and English in India, December 26. New Marriage Act passed in England. Earthquakes at Constantinople and Cairo. Condillac’s Traité des Sensations published. Edwards’s Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will. First part of Hume’s History of England (completed, 1761). Birth of Madame Roland. Birth of Kléber (died, 1800). Birth of Talleyrand (died, 1838). Birth of Crabbe (died, 1832). Society of Arts, London, founded.

1755. Benedict XIV. concludes concordat with Spain, January 11. General Braddock’s expedition against the French in Canada; he is defeated and killed, July 9. Lisbon destroyed by earthquake, November 1. University of Moscow founded. Eruption of Catlegia, Iceland, lasts from October 1755 to August 1756. Johnson’s Dictionary published. Birth of Marie Antoinette. Birth of Flaxman (died, 1826). Birth of Hahnemann (died, 1843). Death of Mosheim (born, 1694).

1756. League of Austria, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden against Pnιssia. Treaty of alliance between France and Austria, May 2. England declares war against France, May 17. Admiral Byng defeated by French off Minorca, May 20. Capture of Calcutta by Suraja Dowla, June 18. Prisoners perish in the Black Hole. Capitulation of English garrison in Minorca to the French, June 28. The Seven Years’ War begins with invasion of Saxony by Frederick II., August 27. Dresden entered and Saxon archives seized, September 10. He defeats the Austrians at Löwositz, October 1. Capitulation of Saxon army, October 15. William Pitt (Chatham) secretary of state, December. Militia Bill passed in England, December. Burke’s Inquiry into the, Origin of our Ideas on the Sublime and Beautiful published. Birth of William Godwin (died, 1836). Birth of Mozart (died, 1791).

1757. Calcutta retaken by the English, January 2. Treaty between Great Britain and Prussia against France and Austria, January 11. Chandernagore taken by English, March 14. Admiral Byng shot, March 14. The French enter Westphalia, the Prussians Bohemia, April. Pitt dismissed from office, April. Battle of Reichenberg, April 24. Battle of Prague; Marshals Browne and Schwerin killed, May 6. Russians invade Prussia, June. Pitt secretary of state again, with powers of prime minister, June. Battle of Plassy,—victory of Clive over the Subahdar, June 23. Hesse-Cassel occupied by French, July. Verden and Bremen occupied by French, August. Minden taken by the French, August 3. Mustapha III. sultan, October 29. Order of Maria Theresa founded. Lacaille's Fundamenta Astronomiae published. Carbonic acid described by Black. Birth of Lafayette (died, 1834). Birth of Sir Samuel Romilly (died, 1818). Birth of Volney (died, 1820). Birth of Baron von Stein (died, 1831). Birth of William Blake (died, 1827).

1758. Prussia overrun by Russians, January. Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick drives the French from Hanover, &c., February-March, and takes Minden, March 14. Subsidy treaty between Great Britain and Prussia, April 11. Clement XIII. pope, July 6. Arcot taken by the French, October 4. Battle of Hochkirchen,—Daun defeats Frederick IL, October 14. French besiege Madras, December Il-February 19, 1759. New treaty of alliance between France and Austria, December 30. Dollond’s achromatic object-glass invented. Annual Register begun by Dodsley. Swedenborg’s New Jerusalem published. Birth of Nelson.

1759. Surat taken by the English, March 2. Treaty between Russia and Sweden for neutrality of the Baltic, March 9. Battle of Minden, August 1. Charles III. king of Spain, August 10. Admiral Boscawen defeats French fleet in Bay of Lagos, August 18. Expulsion of Jesuits from Portugal, September 3. Dresden taken by Imperialists, September 5. Battle of Quebec; deaths of Montcalm and Wolfe, September 13. Admiral Hawke defeats Marshal Conflans in Quiberon Bay, November 20. Marshal Daun captures General Finck and his army at Maxen, November 21. Return of Halley’s comet. Births of Porson, Wilberforce, Pitt, Robespierre, Danton, Schiller, Burns. Death of Maupertuis (born, 1697). Rasselas and first part of Tristram Shandy published.

1760. Capture of Arcot by the English, February 9. Battles of Landshut, June 23; Corbach, July 10; Liegnitz, August 16. English conquest of Canada completed, September 8. Berlin occupied by Russians, October 9-12. George III. king of Great Britain, October 25. Battle of Torgau,—Daun defeated, November 3. Eddystone lighthouse completed by Smeaton. Macpherson’s Ossian published, 1760-63. Birth of Saint-Simon (died, 1825).

1761. Pondicherry taken by Coote, January 14. Dominica taken by the English, June 6. “Family Compact” between the kings of France and Spain, August 15. Marriage of George III., September 8. Resignation of Pitt, October 5. Colberg taken by Russians, December 16. Bridgewater Canal completed by Brindley. Transit of Venus. Death of William Law (born, 1686).

1762. England declares war on Spain, January 2. Peter III. emperor of Russia, January 5. Martinique taken by the English, February 4. Frederick II. concludes peace with Russia, May 5. Earl of Bute prime minister of England, May 29. Portugal invaded by Spaniards, May. Peace of Hamburg between Frederick II. and Sweden, May 22. Peter III. deposed, and succeeded by Catherine IL, July 9; put to death, July 19. Havana taken by earl of Albemarle, August 13. The Spaniards driven out of Portugal, autumn. Hyder Ali rajah of Mysore. Rousseau’s Contrat Social and Emile published. Death of Anson (born, 1697). Births of Fichte, Cobbett, and William Carey.

1763. Peace of Paris, between Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, February 10. Peace of Hubertsburg, between Austria, Prussia, and Saxony, February 15; end of the Seven Years’ War. George Grenville first lord of the treasury, April 8. Arrest of John Wilkes, April 30. Latent heat discovered by Black, 1759-63. Birth of Jean Paul Richter (died, 1825).

1764. Wilkes expelled the House of Commons, January 19. Alliance between Russia and Prussia, April 11. Ivan VI. murdered, July 6. Stanislas Poniatowski elected king of Poland, September 7. Jesuit Order suppressed in France by Louis XV., November 26. Byron’s voyage round the world begun. Lardner’s Testimonies to the Truth of the Christian Religion published. Death of Hogarth (born, 1697).

1765. Stamp Act passed by British parliament, March 22. Opposition to it begun by Virginia, May. Lord Clive governor and commander-in-chief at Calcutta, May. Rockingham administration formed, July 10. Joseph II. emperor, August 18. Lady Huntingdon’s Connexion founded. Blackstone’s Commentaries published.

1766. Death of the Chevalier de St George (the old Pretender), January 2. Christian VII. king of Denmark, January 14. American Stamp Act repealed, March 18. Second Pitt administration, August 2. W λγ between Hyder Ali and the Nizam of the Deccan; alliance of the English with the Nizam, November. Expedition of Wallis and Carteret to the South Seas. Bougainville’s voyage round the world begun. Lessing’s Laocoon published. Goldsmith’s Vicar of Wakefield. Births of Madame de Stael, Dalton, W. H. Wollaston, and Malthus.

1767. Expulsion of Jesuits from Spain, March 31. Corsica given up by Genoa to France, May 15. Alliance of Hyder Ali and the Nizam against the English, September. Otaheite discovered by Wallis and Carteret. Nautical Almanac first published. Births of W. von Humboldt, A. W. Schlegel, and Maria Edgeworth.

1768. Wilkes elected M.P. for Middlesex, March; riot caused by his imprisonment, May 10. General Gage arrives with British troops at Boston, September 26. Lord Chatham resigns privy seal, October 15. War between Russia and Turkey, October. Jesuits expelled from Naples, Parma, and Malta. Cook’s first voyage round the world, 1768-71. The Royal Academy of Arts, London, founded. Death of Nathaniel Lardner (born, 1684). Births of Schleiermacher, Chateaubriand, and General Hoche.

1769. The Letters of “Junius” begin to appear, January. Hyder Ali ravages the Carnatic, January. Wilkes again expelled the Commons, February 2; re-elected for Middlesex, February 16. Hyder Ali compels the English to enter into alliance with him, and to restore their conquests, April. Clement XIV. pope, May 19. Occupation of Corsica by the French, May. Shakespeare Jubilee at Stratford-on-Avon, September 6-8. Moldavia and Wallachia occupied by Russia, September. Watt’s first patent for steam-engine. Robertson’s History of Charles V. published. Births of Napoleon I., Wellington, Alexander von Humboldt, Marshal Ney, Cuvier, Lord Castlereagh, Brunel (the elder), Sir Thomas Lawrence, Mehemet Ali, Sir John Malcolm, and Μ.de Bourrienne.

1770. Resignation of Grafton; Lord North’s administration formed, January 28. The “Boston Massacre,” March 5. The French East India Company dissolved by Louis XV., April 8. Act for repeal of certain colonial duties passed, April 12. Liberation of Wilkes, April 17. Marriage of the Dauphin Louis with Marie Antoinette, May 16. Trial of Woodfall, printer of Junius, June 13. Austrians enter Poland, about midsummer. Turkish fleet defeated by Russians off Chios, July 5, and burnt in Chesmeh Bay, July 7. General Romanzoff defeats the Turks on the Kaghul, August 1. Prussian troops enter Poland, autumn. New South Wales discovered by Cook. Goldsmith’s Deserted Village published. Death of Chatterton (born, 1752). Births of Wordsworth, Hegel, John Foster, George Canning, and Thorwaldsen.

1771. Parliament of Paris exiled by Louis XV., January 19. Gustavus III. king of Sweden, February 13. Shah Alum II. enters Delhi, December. The Crimea seized by Russians. Death of Smollett (born, 1721). Births of Sydney Smith, Lingard, Sir Walter Scott, James Montgomery, Archduke Charles, and Murat. First edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica published.

1772. Warren Hastings governor of Bengal, April 13. Treaty of St Petersburg for partition of Poland between Austria, Russia, and Prussia, August 5. New constitution established in Sweden, August 21. Cook’s second voyage round the world, 1772-74. Royal Marriage Act passed. Death of Swedenborg (born, 1688). Births of Novalis, S. T. Coleridge, Fourier, and D. Ricardo.

1773. Ahmed IV. sultan, January 21. Ali Bey defeated and captured by Murad Bey, April 13; assassinated a few days later. Constitution of East India Company changed, June. Society of Jesus suppressed by Clement XIV., July 31. Diet of Poland concludes cession with the partitioning powers,. September 18. Rohilcund ravaged by Mahrattas. Agitation in Boston, Mass., against the tea tax, December 16. Births of Jeffrey, F. Schlegel, Sismondi, and Thomas Young.

1774. Warren Hastings first governor-general of India, January. Abdul Hamid sultan, January 21. Boston Port Bill passed, March. General Gage appointed governor of Massachusetts, April 2. Louis XVI. king of France, May 10. General Court of Massachusetts, closed, June 17. Treaty of Kutchuk Kainardji, between Russia and Turkey, July 21. Congress opens at Philadelphia, September 5; closes October 26. Death of Pope Clement XIV., September 22. Parliaments of France re-established by Louis XVI., November 12. New Caledonia discovered by Cook. Oxygen discovered by Priestley and by Scheele. Chesterfield’s Letters published. Goethe’s Leiden des jungen Werther. The Wolfenbüttelsche Fragmente. Births of Southey and Mezzofanti.

1775. Pius VI. pope, February 14. Battle of Lexington, Massachusetts, April 19. Famine riots at Versailles, May. Washington commander-in-chief of continental army, June 5. Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17. Boston invested by Washington, July 2. Montreal taken by General Montgomery, November 12. Code of Catherine II. published. Lavaters Physiognomy. Births of Charles Lamb, Turner, Jane Austen, and O'Connell.

1776. Evacuation of Boston by the English, March 17. Canada evacuated by Americans, June 18. Declaration of Independence of the “United States,” July 4. Commissioners of United States sent to France, September. British troops enter New York, September 15. Necker’s administration (France), November. Battle of Trenton, December 26. Cook’s last voyage begun. First vol. of Gibbon's Roman Empire published (completed, 1778). Smith’s Wealth of Nations. Birth of Niebuhr.

1777. National flag of United States adopted, June 14. Execution of Dr Dodd for forgery, June 27. Battle of Brandywine, September 11. General Howe takes Philadelphia, September 27. Battle of Germantown, October 4. Surrender of General Burgoyne to General Gates, at Saratoga, October 16. Articles of Confederation of United States agreed to, November 15. Suspension of Habeas Corpus Act in Great Britain, December 11. Death of Maximilian Joseph, elector of Bavaria, December 30, followed by dispute as to succession. Howard’s State of the Prisons published. Births of Oersted, De la Motte-Fouqué, and Thomas Campbell.

1778.∙ Independence of United States recognized by France, January 16; treaty of amity signed, January 30. English ambassador recalled from Paris, March 13. Death of Chatham, May 11. France declares war against England, July 10. Savannah taken by the English, December 28. Sandwich Islands and Owhyhee discovered by Cook. Death of Voltaire: Births of Thomas Brown, Sir Humphrey Davy, De Candolle, and Gay-Lussac.

1779. Admiral Keppel tried by court-martial and acquitted, January-February 11. Captain Cook (born, 1728) killed in Owhyhee, February 14. Peace of Teschen, May 13, ends war of the Bavarian succession. Spain declares war against Great Britain, June 16. Alliance of Spain with United States, July 13. Fleets of France and Spain in the English Channel, August. Protestant Association founded in England. Johnson’s Lives of the Poets published, 1779-81. The Olney Hymns. Births of Moore, Oehlenschläger, Oken, and Berzelius.

1780. Rodney defeats Spanish fleet off Cape St Vincent, January 16. Charleston surrenders to Sir H. Clinton, May 13. The Gordon riots in London, June 2. Armed Neutrality between Russia, Denmark, and Sweden, July 9 and August 1; joined by States-General, December 24. Arcot taken by Hyder Ali, October 31. Death of Maria Theresa, November 29. Vaccination suggested by Jenner.

1781. The French invade Jersey, and are defeated, January 6. Bombardment of Gibraltar by Spaniards, April 12 to November 26. Conquest of Florida by Spaniards completed, May. Necker resigns, May. The king of Prussia joins Armed Neutrality, May 8. Sir Eyre Coote defeats Hyder Ali near Porto Novo, July 1. Yorktown occupied by Lord Cornwallis, August 1. Sea-fight off the Doggerbank between English and Dutch, August 5. The emperor joins Armed Neutrality, October 9. Edict of toleration issued by the emperor, October 13. Yorktown capitulates to Washington, October 19. The Barrier Treaty dissolved, November. Uranus ĬGeorgium Sidus) discovered by Herschel. Sunday Schools originated by Robert Raikes. Births of H. F. Clinton, G. Stephenson, and Sir F. Chantrey.

1782. Second Rockingham administration in office, March 27. Victory of Rodney over French fleet off Dominica, April 12. Death of Rockingham, July 1. Shelburne administration, July 10. The “Royal George’’ sinks at Spithead, August 29. Successful defence of Gibraltar against the allies by General Elliott. Preliminaries of peace between England and the United States, November 30. Charleston evacuated by the English, December 14. Death of Hyder Ali, December 7; Tippoo Saib succeeds him. Poyning's Law ( Ireland) repealed. Rousseau’s Confessions published.

1783. Sovereignty of the Crimea sold to Catherine IL, January 20. Coalition ministry of Fox and North, April 2. Definitive treaty of peace between England and United States signed at Paris, September 3. Treaty of peace between Great Britain, France, and Spain, September 3. The Coalition ministry dismissed, December 13. Pitt appointed first lord of the treasury, December 19. Washington resigns his commission, December 23. First experiments with Montgolfier’s air balloon. Order of St Patrick founded. Birth of Bolivar.

1784. Tippoo concludes peace with the English,—restitution of conquests agreed to, March 11. Treaty of peace between England and Holland, June 20. Pitt’s India Bill passed, August 13. The Board of Control established. Death of Johnson, December 13. Bramah lock patented. Mitford’s History of Greece, vol. i., published (completed, 1818).

1785. Resignation of Warren Hastings, February 8. John Adams, first ambassador of United States to England, presented to George III., June 1. Confederation of Saxony, Brandenburg, and Hanover, July 23. Treaty of Fontainebleau between the emperor and the States-General, guaranteed by France, signed, November 8. Expedition of La Perouse to South Seas. Royal Irish Academy incorporated Death of General Oglethorpe (boro, 1696).

1786. Impeachment of Warren Hastings, Febnιary. Frederick William II. king of Prussia, August 17. Lord Cornwallis governorgeneral of India, September. Treaty of navigation and commerce between Great Britain and France, September 26. Sebastopol founded. University of Bonn founded. Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society instituted. Burns’s Poems published. Death of Admiral Keppel (born, 1725).

1787. First Assembly of Notables meets at Versailles, February 22; closes May 25. The parliament of Paris exiled, August-September. War between Russia and Turkey renewed, August. The Prussians invade Holland, and restore the stadtholder, September. Eruption of Etna, July to October. Society for suppression of the slave-trade formed in London. Death of Gluck (born, 1712).

1788. First publication of The Times, January 1. Death of Prince Charles Edward, January 31. The emperor declares war against Turkey, February 9. Trial of Warren Hastings begins, February 13. Turkish fleet defeated and destroyed, June 26. Russia declares war against Sweden, July 11. Necker recalled, August 24. Temporary insanity of George III.; regency of Prince of Wales, October to February 1789. Second Assembly of the Notables, November 6-December 12. Oczakoff stormed by Russians under Potemkin, December 17. Penal settlement at Botany Bay. Drainage of the Pontine Marshes completed.

1789. Charles IV. king of Spain, January 17. Selim III. sultan, April 7. Mutiny of the “Bounty,” April 28. Washington first president of United States, April 30. First French Revolution; opening of the States-General at Versailles, May 5. National Assembly constituted, June 17. Fall of the Bastille, July 14. Abolition of feudal privileges, August 4. Insurrection in the Netherlands, September. Suwaroff defeats the Tuιks, September 22. Jacobin Club settles at Paris, about October. The Austrians expelled from the Netherlands, December. Land settlement in India begun. Herschels great telescope completed. White’s. Natural History of Selbome published. Birth of Neander.

1790. Act of Union of Belgic United Provinces signed at Brussels, January 11. Treaty of alliance between Prussia and the Porte,. January 31. Monastic vows abolished in France, February 13. Death of Joseph IL, February 20. Defensive alliance between Prussia and Poland, March 29. Titles of honour abolished in France, June 20. Federation Fête of the Champs de Mars, July 14. Peace of Werela between Russia and Sweden, signed, August 14. First issue of assignats in France, September 9. Leopold II. elected emperor, September 30. Austrians enter Brussels, December 2. Convention between the emperor and mediating powers; end of the Belgian Republic, December 10. Ismail taken by Suwaroff, December 22. City of Washington founded. Burke’s Reflections on the French Revolution published.

1791. Death of John Wesley, March 2. Death of Mirabeau, April 2. New Polish Constitution promulgated, May 3. Flight of Louis XVI. from Paris, June 20; he is arrested at Varennes and brought back, June 21. Priestley riots at Birmingham, July 14. Declaration of Pilnitz, August 27. First coalition (between Austria and Prussia) formed, August 27. The constitution completed by National Assembly, September 3; accepted by Louis, September 14. Meeting of National Legislative Assembly at Paris, October 1. Death of Potemkin, October 16. Representative government introduced in Canada. Galvani’s discovery of animal electricity published. D’ Israeli’s Curiosities of Literature published.

1792. Peace of Jassy between Russia and Turkey, January 9. Attack on Seringapatam by the English, February 6. Death of the Emperor Leopold IL, March 1. Girondist ministry at Paris, March. Gustavus III. of Sweden assassinated by Ankarström, March 16; Gustavus IV. succeeds. Peace concluded between the English and Tippoo; cession of half of Mysore, March 19. The blacks in St Domingo declared free, April 4. Louis XVI. declares war against the king of Hungary, April 20. Invasion of the National Assembly and the Tuileries by the mob, “procession of the black breeches,’ June 20. Francis II. elected emperor, July 5. Manifesto of duke of Brunswick, July 25. Death of the earl of Guildford (Lord North), August 5. Attack on the Tuileries; massacre of the Swiss guards, August 10. Louis and his family imprisoned in the Temple, August 13. Invasion of France begins, August 18. The “September Massacres,” at Paris, September 2-3. Opening of National Convention, September 21. Abolition of royalty, September 21. The Republic proclaimed, September 22. The Revolutionary calendar adopted, September 22. French occupation of Savoy, September. Battle of Jemappes, November 6. Belgium overrun by the French, November-December. The Scheldt opened to all nations, November 22. Fox’s Libel Bill passed. Baptist Missionary Society founded. Gas first used for lighting.

1793. Treaty between Russia and Prussia for second partition of Poland, January 4. Alien Bill passed in England, January 4. Execution of Louis XVI., January 21. Invasion of Holland by Dumouríer, February. ΛVashington president of United States (second term), March 4. Insurrection in La Vendée, March 10. Revolutionary Tribunal established, March 11. “Reign of Terror.” English arnιv sent to Holland, March. Death of Chief-Justice Mansfield, March 20 (born, 1705). Fall of the Girondists, June 2. Assassination of Marat by Charlotte Corday, July 13; execution of Charlotte, July 17. Levy en masse of the French ordered, August 23. Pondicherry taken by the English, August 23. Toulon taken by Lord Hood, August 28. Lyons taken by Kellermann, October 9. Execution of Marie Antoinette, October 15; of the Girondists, October 31. Worship of reason introduced, November 10. Toulon retaken,—Napoleon Bonaparte at the siege, December 18,19. The Noyades of Nantes, December. Society of United Irishmen founded.

1794. Insurrection in Poland, Kosciuszko generalissimo, March. Execution of Danton and his followers, April 6. Habeas Corpus Act suspended in England, May 23. Victory of Lord Howe over French fleet, off Brest, June 1. Fête de l'Etre Suprême, June 8. Battle of Fleuras, June 26. Fall of Robespierre,—end of the Reign of Terror, July 27. Corsica reduced by the English, August 4. Battle of Macie-wice; Kosciuszko wounded and captured, October 10. Trials of Hardy, Horne Tooke, and others, October-November. Battle of Praga,—the Poles defeated by Suwaroff, November 4. Warsaw entered by Russians, November 9. The English driven from Holland, December. Chappe’s telegraph invented. Godwin’s Caleb Williams published. Paley’s Evidences. Goethe’s Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre.

1795. Third partition of Poland arranged between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, January 3. The French enter Amsterdam, January 19. Abolition of the stadtholderate; the Batavian Republic established, February 24. Insurrection at Paris, April 1. Peace of Basel between French Republic and the king of Prussia, April 5. Acquittal of Warren Hastings, April 23. Insurrection at Paris, May 20-21. Treaty of Basel between France and Spain, July 22. The Directory established, August 22. Cape of Good Hope taken by the English, September. Annexation of Belgium to France, October 1. Last sitting of National Convention, October 26. King Stanislas abdicates, November 25. Dutch settlements in Ceylon taken by English. Institute of France and École Polytechnique founded. Maynooth College, Ireland, founded.

1796. Irish Insurrection Act passed, March 10. Battle of Lodi, May 10. Milan entered by Napoleon, May 15. Treaty between French Republic and the king of Sardinia for cession of Nice, Savoy, &c., May 15. Bologna entered by Napoleon, June 18. Alliance between France and Spain, August 19. Spain declares war against Great Britain, October 6. Suspension of Habeas Corpus Act in Ireland, October 26. Battle of Arcola, November 15-17. Paul emperor of Russia, November 17. Cispadane Republic founded, December. Attempt of General Hoche on Ireland, December 22-27. Hydraulic press patented by Bramah.

1797. Battle of Rivoli, January 14. Capitulation of Mantua to Napoleon, February 1, 2. Admiral Jervis defeats Spanish fleet off Cape St Vincent, February 14. John Adams president of United States, March 4. Napoleon declares war on Venice, May 3; and enters the city, May 16. Councils of Five Hundred and of the Ancients established at Paris, May 20. Ligurian Republic established, June. Cisalpine Republic, June 29. Death of Burke, July 9. Death of Bums, July 21. Coup-d’état of 18th Fructidor, September 4. Admiral Duncan defeats Dutch fleet off Camperdown, October 11. Treaty of Campo Formio between France and Austria, October 17. Frederick William III. king of Prassia, November 16. Congress of Rastadt opens, December 9. Insurrection at Rome, December 27. First issue of one-pound notes by Bank of England.

1798. Occupation of Rome by the French, February 10; a republic proclaimed, February 15. Subjugation of Sλvitzerland by the French, January-March. Helvetic Republic proclaimed, April 12. Annexation of Geneva to France, April 26. Rebellion in Ireland breaks out, May 23. Malta taken by Napoleon, June 11. French invasion of Egypt, July 1. Battle of the Pyramids, July 21. Battle of the Nile, August 1-2. General Humbert lands French force at Killala, August; surrenders to General Lake, September 8. Rome occupied by Neapolitans, November 29. Abdication of king of Sardinia, December 9. Alliance between Russia and the Porte, December 23. Treaty between Great Britain and Russia, December 29. Income Tax proposed by Pitt, December. Jenner’s Inquiry (“Vaccination”) published. Lithography invented by Senefelder. Haydn’s Creation produced.

1799. Naples entered by the French, January. Capitulation of Ehrenbreitstein to the French, January 29. Invasion of Syria by Napoleon, February. Massacre of Jaffa, March 7. Unsuccessful siege of Acre by Napoleon, March 16-May 21. Invasion of Mysore by the English, March. Congress of Rastadt closed, April 7. Seringapatam stormed by the English under Baird; Tippoo killed, May 4. Second coalition against France formed, June 22. Napoleon defeats Turks at Aboukir, July 25. Ferdinand IV. of Naples restored, July 27. Russians enter Switzerland, August. Death of Pius VI., August 29. Zurich entered by the French, September 26. Retreat of Suwaroff from Switzerland, September 29. Rome recovered from the French, September 30. Overthrow of the Directory, 18th Brumaire, November 9. Napoleon “First Consul,” December 24. Death of Washington, December 14. Laplace’s Mécanique Celeste published (completed, 1825).

1800. Pius VII. elected pope, March 14. Cession of Surat to East India Company, May 13. Passage of the Great St Bernard by Napoleon, May 17-20. Battle of Marengo, June 14. Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland by Act passed July 2. Malta taken by English, September 5. Cession of Mysore to the English, October 12. Battle of Hohenlinden, December 3. The Voltaic pile invented. The Journal des Débats founded.

1801. First imperial parliament of United Kingdom meets, January 22. Resignation of Pitt, February 5. Addington first lord of the treasury. Peace of Lunéville, February 9. Thomas Jefferson president of United States, March 4. Battle of Alexandria; Abercromby mortally wounded, March 21. Kingdom of Etruria erected by Napoleon, March 21. Paul, emperor of Russia, murdered, March 24; Alexander I. succeeds. Victory of Nelson over Danish fleet at Copenhagen, April 2. Cairo surrenders to the English, June 27. Concordat between Pius VII. and Napoleon, July 15. Mecca taken and pillaged by Wahhabees. Evacuation of Egypt by the French, September 2. Peace between Great Britain and France, October 1; between Russia and France, October 8. First Census of Great Britain taken. The asteroid Ceres discovered by Piazzi. Block machinery invented by Brunel.

1802. French expedition against St Domingo, February. Peace of Amiens, March 27. Napoleon First Consul for life, August 3. Rising of the Swiss under Aloys Reding, summer. Piedmont annexed to France, September Tl. The asteroid Pallas discovered by Olbers. Edinburgh Review commenced, October.

1803. New constitution imposed on Switzerland by Napoleon’s “Act of Mediation,” Febraary 19. Cape of Good Hope restored to the Dutch, Febraary 21. Egypt evacuated by the English, March 17. Louisianasold by Napoleon to United States, April 30. England declares war against France, May 18. Hanover seized by the French, June. Rising in Ireland under Emmett, July 23. Preparations for French invasion of England, summer. War between the English and Sindia begins, August 3. General Lake defeats Mahrattas near Delhi, and enters the city, September 12. Battle of Assaye, September 23. St Domingo proclaimed independent, November 29. Treaty with Rajah of Berar, December 17; with Sindia, December 28. Atomic theory propounded by Dalton.

1804. Publication of the Code Civil (Napoléon), January. Duke of Enghien shot by order of Napoleon, March 21. Surinam taken by the English, April 29. Pitt prime minister the second time, May 12. Napoleon “Emperor of the French,” May 18. The Jesuits readmitted to the Two Sicilies, July 30. Francis II. assumes title of hereditary emperor of Austria, August 11. War with Holkar through this year and the next. Coronation of Napoleon I. and Josephine by the Pope at Paris, December 2. Spain declares war against Great Britain, December 12. Asteroid Juno discovered by Harding. British and Foreign Bible Society established. Savings Banks originated. Schiller’s Wilhelm Tell published.

1805. Siege of Bhurtpore by the English, January. Jefferson president cf the United States (second term), March 4. Battle of Bhurtpore, April 2. Third coalition against France, April 11. Death of Earl of Shelburne, May 2 (born, 1737). Napoleon crowned king of Italy at Milan, May 26. Genoa and Ligurian Republic incorporated with France, June 3. Impeachment of Lord Melville, June 26. Third coalition against France completed, September 8. Capitulation of General Mack to Napoleon at Ulm, October 17 and 19. Victory and death of Nelson at Trafalgar, October 21. Vienna occupied by the French, November 13. Russian and British forces land in Naples, November 20. Battle of Austerlitz, December 2. Treaty with Holkar, cession of territory to the English, December 24. Peace of Presburg, December 26^ British and Foreign School Society founded. Foster’s Essays published. Scott’s Lay of the Last Minstrel.

1806. The electors of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg take the title of king, January 1. Cape of Good Hope retaken by the English, January 8. Death of Pitt, January 23. Grenville and Fox administration, Febraary. Admiral Duckworth destroys French squadron off St Domingo, Febraary 6. Prussia concludes treaty with Napoleon I., Febraary 16; ratified March 9. Joseph Bonaparte made king of the Two Sicilies, March 30. Trial of Lord Melville begins, April 29; acquittal, June 12. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte made king of Holland, June 6. Great Britain declares war against Prussia, June 11. Battle of Maida, July 5. Mutiny of Sepoys at Vellore, July 10. Confederation of the Rhine formed, July 12. Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, August 6. Death of Fox, September 13. Fourth coalition against France, October 6. Battles of Jena and Auerstadt, October 14. Napoleon enters Berlin, October 27. Flight of Frederick William III., October. Napoleon's Berlin decree declaring the British Isles in a state of blockade, November 21. Occupation of Hamburg by the French, November. War between Russia and Turkey begins, November 23. Elector of Saxony assumes title of king, December 11. The Russians enter Bucharest, December 27. Haileybuτy College founded.

1807. Battle of Eylau, Febraary 7-8. Sir J. Duckworth forces the passage of the Dardanelles, February 19. Abolition of the slave trade in British empire by Act passed March 25. The Portland administration, April. Dantzic taken by the French, May 26.

Sultan Selim deposed byJanissaries, May 29; Mustapha IV. succeeds. Napoleon defeats the Russians at Friedland, June 14. Conference of the emperors Alexander and Napoleon near Tilsit, June 25. Peace of Tilsit, July 7 and 9. Death of the Cardinal York, last of the Stuarts, July 13. Jerome Bonaparte made king of Westphalia, August 18. Bombardment of Copenhagen by English fleet, September 2-5; surrender of Danish fleet. Evacuation of Egypt by British forces, September. French invasion of Portugal, November; Lisbon entered, November 30. The Prince Regent and Royal family of Portugal embark for Brazil, November 29. Rupture between Great Britain and Russia, November-December. French troops enter Spain, December. The kingdom of Etruria seized by Napoleon, December 10. Napoleon publishes the Milan decree, December 18. The asteroid Vesta discovered by Gibers. Zoological Society of London instituted. Hegel's Phänomenologie des Geistes published. Moore’s Irish Melodies.

1808. Napoleon occupies Rome, February 2. A new nobility created in France by Napoleon, March 11. Abdication of Charles IV. of Spain in favour of Ferdinand, prince of Asturias, March 19. Murat enters Madrid, March 23. Insurrection at Madrid, May 2. Treaty of Bayonne between Charles IV. and Napoleon, May 5. Abdication of Ferdinand, May 6. Joseph Bonaparte made king of Spain, June 6. Siege of Saragossa by the French begun, June 15. Murat made king of Naples, July 15. Battle of Baylen, July 21. Sir Arthur Wellesley lands in Spain, August 1. Siege of Saragossa raised, August 4. Battle of Vimeira,—Wellesley defeats the French, August 21. Convention of Cintra. Conference of Alexander and Napoleon at Erfurt, September 27-October 14. Mustapha IV. deposed and murdered, November 15; Mahmoud II. succeeds. Madrid «ntered by Napoleon, December 4. Abolition of Spanish Inquisition, December 4. Saragossa again bombarded by the French, December 20. Retreat of Sir John Moore begun, December 24. Finland incorporated with Russia. Manby’s apparatus for saving life in shipwreck invented. Scott’s Marmion published.

1809. Treaty of peace between Great Britain and Turkey, January 5. Battle of Coruña; death of Sir John Moore, January 16. Saragossa stormed by the French, January 27. Conduct of the duke of York investigated by parliament, January-March. War between Russia and Turkey, February. The lines of Travancore stormed by English, February 10-21. James Madison president of United States, March 4. Gustavus IV. of Sweden deposed, March 29; Charles XIII. succeeds. Oporto taken by Soult, March 29. Revolt of Tyrol under Hofer, April 8. Invasion of Bavaria by Austrians, April 11. Passageof the Douro by Wellington; occupation of Oporto, May 12. Napoleon enters Vienna, May 13. States of the Church annexed to France, May 17. Battle of Aspern, May 21-22. Charles XIII. king of Sweden, June 6. Napoleon excommunicated by the Pope, June 10. Arrest of the Pope, July 5. Battle of Wagram, July 6. Battle of Talavera, July 27-28. English expedition to Walcheren sails, July 28. Finland ceded to Russia, August 7. Flushing taken by the English, August 16. Peace of Vienna between France and Austria, October 14. Perceval administration formed, October 30. Divorce of the Empress Josephine, December 15. Evacuation of Walcheren by the English, December 23. The Quarterly Review commenced (February).

1810. Guadaloupe and Amboyna taken by the English, February. Marriage of Napoleon with Archduchess Maria Louisa, April 1. Sir F. Burdett committed to the Tower, April 9. Silistria taken by Russians, June 23. Holland annexed to France, July 10. Massena takes Ciudad Rodrigo, July 12. Bernadotte chosen crown prince of Sweden, August 21. Battle of Busaco, September 27. Wellington’s army within the lines of Torres Vedras, October 10. Insanity of George III., November. Mauritius taken by English, December 3. University of Berlin founded. Sect of Primitive Methodists founded by Hugh Bourne. Madame de StaeΓs De l’Allemagne published. Hahnemann’s Organon.

1811. Tortosa taken by Suchet, January 2. The Regency Bill (Great Britain) passed, February 5. Death of Maskelyne, February 9 (born, 1732). Massacre of the Mamelukes at Cairo by Mehemet Ali, March 1. Badajoz surrenders to the French, March 10. Battle of Fuentes d’Onore, May 4, 5. Battle of Albuera, May 16. Java conquered by the English, August 26. Death of Bishop Percy, September 30 (born, 1728). Luddite riots at Nottingham begin, November. Great comet visible for four months. Bell Rock lighthouse built by Stevenson. National School Society founded. Niebuhr’s Römische Geschichte published.

1812. Wellington storms Ciudad Rodrigo, January 19; invests Badajoz, March 16; storms the town, April 6. New Spanish constitution promulgated by the Cortes, March 18. Assassination of Mr Perceval, May 11. Peace of Bucharest between Russia and Turkey,—the Pmth declared the boundary of the two empires, May 28. The Liverpool administration formed, June 8. The United States declare war against Great Britain, June 18. Napoleon declares war against Russia, June 22. Treaties of peace between Great Britain, Sweden, and Russia, July 18. Battle of Salamanca, July 22. Madrid entered by Wellington, August 12. Smolensk© taken by the French, August 17. Battle of Borodino (the Moskwa), September 7. Moscow entered by Napoleon, the city burnt, September 14. Moscow evacuated by the French, October 19. Bell’s steam-vessel sails on the Clyde. Iodine discovered. Coleridge’s The Friend published. First two cantos of Childe Harold. Hegel’s Logik.

1813. Fourteen Luddites executed at York, January 10. Concordat between Napoleon I. and Pius VII., January 25. Abolition of Spanish Inquisition by the Cortes, February 12. Fifth coalition against France, March 1. James Madison president of United States (second term), March 4. Battle of Lützen, May 2. Battle of Bautzen, May 20-21. Hamburg seized by Davoust, May 30. Capture of U.S. frigate “Chesapeake” by H.M.S. “Shannon,” June 1. Battle of Vittoria, June 21. Battles of the Pyrenees, July 25-30. Battles of Dresden, August 24, 25, and 27. St Sebastian stormed by Wellington, August 31. Treaty of Töplitz; alliance of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, September 9. Wellington Esses the Bidassoa, and invades France, October 7. Battle of ipsic, October 16, 18, 19. Neutrality of Switzerland proclaimed, Novembers. The French evacuate Germany, November 22. William, prince of Orange recalled, December 1. Electric light discovered by Davy. Shelley’s Q ueen Mab published. Southey’s Life of Nelson.

1814. Bolivar chief of republic of Venezuela, January 1. Cession of Norway to Sweden by treaty of Kiel, January 14. Pius VIL dismissed from Fontainebleau, January 22. Death of Fichte, January 27. Battle of Orthez, February 27. Treaty of Claremont, March 1. Capitulation of Paris, March 31. Entry of the allied sovereigns. Deposition of Napoleon by the senate, April 1. Battle of Toulouse, April 10. Abdication of Napoleon, April 11. Louis XVIII. enters Paris (the first Restoration), May 3. Napoleon lands in Elba, May 4. Ferdinand VII. annuls the constitution, May 4; enters Madrid, May 14. The Pope enters Rome, May 24. Peace of Paris, May 30. Invasion of Canada by Americans, July. Annexation of Belgium to Holland agreed to, July 21. The Inquisition re-established in Spain, July 21. Capture and burning of Washington by General Ross, August 24. Hanover erected into a kingdom, October 11. Congress of Vienna opens, November 3. Peace of Ghent between Great Britain and United States, December 24. New Orleans attacked by Sir E. Pakenham, December 27. New Com Law passed in England. Order of Jesuits re-established by Pius VII. Wordsworth’s Excursion published. Scott’s Waverley.

1815. Battle of New Orleans, January 8. Napoleon escapes from Elba, February 26; lands at Cannes, March 1. The kingdom of the Netherlands constituted; William I. proclaimed king, March 16. Napoleon reaches Paris, March 20. “The Hundred Days.” Treaty of Vienna between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, March 23. Murat begins war against Austria, March 28; he is defeated at Tolentino, May 2, 3; surrenders the kingdom of Naples to Ferdinand IV., May 20. Napoleon’s new constitution accepted, June 1. German Confederation constituted by treaty of Vienna, June 8. Territorial settlement of Europe by Congress of Vienna, June 9. Battles of Ligny and Quatre Bras, June 16. Battle of Waterloo, June 18. Second abdication of Napoleon I., June 22. The allies enter Paris, July 7. Return of Louis XVIII. to Paris (second Restoration), July 8. Surrender of Napoleon to Captain Maitland of H M.S. “Bellerophon,” July 15. Formation of the “Holy Alliance,” September 26. Arrival of Napoleon at St Helena, October 16. Ionian Islands placed under protection of Great Britain, November 5. Second Peace of Paris, November 20. Marshal Ney condemned to death by Chamber of Peers, December 6, and shot at Paris, December 7. The safety lamp invented by Davy. Scott’s Guy Mannering published. Wordsworth’s White Doc of Rylstone. North American Review begun.

1816. Marriage of Princess Charlotte of England with Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, May 2. Select Committee on Education appointed, May 21. Death of Admiral Lord Hood, June 27 (bora, 1724). Bombardment of Algiers by Admiral Lord Exmouth, August 26. Death of Earl Stanhope, December 15 (born, 1753). Electric telegraph invented by Ronalds. University of Warsaw founded. Cuvier’s Règne Animal published. Scott’s Antiquary and Old Mortality.

1817. James Monroe president of United States, March 4. Suspension of Habeas Corpus Act, March 4. The “Blanket Meeting” at Manchester dispersed by the Military, March 11. The “Derbyshire Insurrection,” June 8, 9. Dissolution of rhe Mahratta Confederacy, June 13. Pius VII. condemns Bible Societies by bull of June 29. Death of Curran, October 14 (born, 1750). Death of Kosciuszko, October 15. Pindaree war begins, October. Death of Princess Charlotte, November 6. Holkar defeated by the English at battle of Mehudpore, December 21. Waterloo Bridge, London, opened. The kaleidoscope invented by Brewster. Shelley’s Revolt of Islam published. Moore’s Lalla Rookh. Blackwoods Edinburgh Magazine commenced.

1818. The English conclude peace with Holkar, January 6. Repeal of Habeas Corpus Suspension Act, January 31. Bernadotte (as Charles XIV.) king of Sweden, February 6. Congress of Aix-1⅛- Chapelle opens, February 14; closed, November 20. End of the Pindaree war, May. Constitutional charter of Bavaria, May 25. Marriages of duke of Clarence with Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Mein-engen, and of duke of Kent with Princess Mary of Saxe-Coburg, July 13. Suicide of Sir Samuel Romilly, November 2. Death of Queen Charlotte of England, November 17. Evacuation of French territory by the army of occupation, November 30. Subjugation of the Wahhabees completed by Ibrahim Pasha. The stethoscope invented by Laennec. Scott’s Heart of Mìd-Lothian published. Hallam’s Europe during the Middle Ages.

1819. Cession of Florida by Spain to United States, February 22. Kotzebue assassinated at Mannheim, March 23. Birth of Princess Victoria, May 24. Peel’s Currency Act passed, June 23. Congress of Carlsbad meets, August 1. Radical Reform meetings at Manchester dispersed by the yeomanry (the “Peterloo” Massacre), August 16. The German Zollverein founded. Macadam's system of roadmaking published. Electro-magnetism discovered by Oersted. Scott’s Bride of Lammermoor and Ivanhoe.

1820. Death of the duke of Kent, January 23. George IV. king of England, January 29. Ferdinand VII. swears to the constitution, March 9. Expulsion of Jesuits from Russia, March 25. Death of Grattan, May 14 (born, 1746). Revolution in Naples, the insurrection of the Carbonari, July 2. Bill of pains and penalties against Queen Caroline introduced in House of Lords, July 6 (abandoned, November 10). Revolt of Ali Pasha of Joannina, August-September. Revolution in Portugal, the Spanish constitution proclaimed, September 15. Congress of Troppau meets, October 20. Congress of Laybach meets, December 17. Astronomical Society of London founded. Byron's Don Juan published. Shelley’s The Cenci. Foster’s Essay on Popular Ignorance.

1821. Revolutionary movements in Brazil, January. Death of John Keats, February 24 (born, 1796). James Monroe president of the United States (second term), March 4. Insurrection in Greece, March 6. Abdication of Victor Emmanuel I. king of Sardinia, in favour of his brother Charles Felix, March 23. Naples occupied by Austrian army, March 24. The Greek patriarch hung at Constantinople, April 21. The independence of Brazil proclaimed, April 22. Death of Napoleon I. at St Helena, May 5. Congress of Laybach closed, May 6. Provisional government established in Greece, June 9. Return of John VI. to Lisbon, July. Coronation of George IV., July 19. Death of Queen Caroline, August 7. George IV. visits Ireland, August 15-September 15, and Hanover, October. Republic of Liberia founded by Americans. Scott’s Kenilworth and The Pirate published.

1822. Declaration of independence by the Greeks, January 1. Ali Pasha surrenders to the Turks, and is put to death, February 5. Insurrection Act (Ireland) passed, and Habeas Corpus Act suspended, February 11. Massacre of Scio, April-May. Iturbide proclaimed emperor of Mexico, May 22. Athens taken by the Greeks, June 22. George IV. visits Scotland, August. Suicide of Lord Castlereagh, August 12. Congress of Verona, August 25-December 14. Don Pedro emperor of Brazil, October 12. Caledonian Canal completed. Calculating Machine invented by Babbage. Brown's Philosophy of the Hainan Mind published. Byrons Cain.

1823. Abdication of Iturbide, March 20. Invasion of Spain by the French, April 7; Madrid entered, May 23. John VI. of Portugal abolishes the constitution, June 5. Ferdinand VII declared incapable, and a regency appointed, June 11. Bombardment of Cadiz by the French begins, September 20. Death of Pius VII., August 20. Leo XII. elected pope, September 28. Capitulation of Cadiz, October 1. Great Britain sends consuls to South American States, October 30. British Anti-Slavery Society founded. Catholic Association in Ireland. Mormonism originated by Joseph Smith. Lamb’s Essays of Elia published. Victor Hugo’s Odes et Ballades.

1824. Bolivar dictator of Peru, February 10. Death of Eugène Beauharnais, February 21 (born, 1781). War with Burmah, March 5. Death of Lord Byron at Missolonghi, April 18. Rangoon taken by the English, May 11. Iturbide arrested in Mexico and shot, July 19. Singapore acquired by the English, August. Charles X. king of France, September 16. Provisional government formed in Greece, October 12. The Spaniards in Peru finally defeated at Ayachuco, December 9. Anger-stein collection of pictures bought by English Government as foundation of a National Gallery. Westminster Review established. Godwin’s History of the Commonwealth published (1824-1828).

1825. Treaty of commerce between Great Britain and La Plata, February 2. Expedition of Ibrahim Pasha against the Greeks, February 28. John Quincy Adams president of United States, March 4. Great earthquake in Algiers, March 2-7. The Catholic Association abolished by Act passed March 9. Treaties of commerce between Great Britain and Columbia, April 18, and between Great Britain and Mexico, April 29. Navarino taken by Ibrahim Pasha, May 18; Tripolitza, June 23. Ports of Dutch East Indies opened to ships of all nations, July 21. The independence of Brazil recognized by Portugal, September 7. Nicholas I. emperor of Russia, December 1. Commercial panic in England, December. The limelight invented by Drummond. First voyage by steam from England to India made. Coleridge’s Aids to Reflection published. Pepys's Diary deciphered and published.

1826. War between Brazil and Buenos Ayres begins, January. Bhurtpore stormed by Lord Combermere, January 18. Capitulation of Callao to Peruvian patriots, January 22; evacuation of Peru by Spaniards. Treaty of navigation between Great Britain and France, January 26. Treaty of peace between English and Burmese, February 24. Death of John VI.; Don Pedro, emperor of Brazil, becomes king of Portugal, March 10. Death of Weber, June 5 Rebellion and massacre of the Janissaries at Constantinople, June 15. Death of Adams and Jefferson, ex-presidents of the United States, July 4. Don Miguel assumes title of king, July 4. Bussia declares war against Persia, September 28. Insurrection in Portugal, October 6. Death of Talma, October 19 (born, 1763). Convention between Great Britain and United States respecting indemnities for damages during the war, November 13. Treaty between Great Britain and Brazil for suppression of slave trade, November 23. Portugal appeals for aid to England, December 3. Death of Flaxman, December 9 (born, 1755). English fleet in the Tagus, December 25. Zoological Society of London founded. London University founded. Menai Suspension Bridge opened. Disraeli’s Vivian Grey published.

1827. Death of Frederick, duke of York, January 5 (born, 1763). Death of Mitford, February 8 (born, 1744). Death of Pestalozzi, February 17 (born, 1746). Canning administration, April 12. National Guard of France disbanded by Charles X., April 29. Erection of kingdom of Greece by treaty of London, J uly 6. Death of Canning, August 8. The Goderich administration, August 11. Duke of Portland president of the council, August 17 Death of Ugo Foscolo, October 10 (born, about 1776). Battle of Navarino, October 26. Charles X. dissolves the Chamber of Deputies, November 5. Needle-gun invented by Dreyse. Omnibus introduced at Paris. Overland route to India projected. Keble’s Christian Year published. Scott's Tales of a Grandfather. Arnott’s Elements of Physics. Simrock’s version of the Nibelungenlied.

1828. Fall of the Villèle ministry in France, January 4. Resignation of Lord Goderich, January 8. The Wellington administration in office, January 25. Peace of Turkmanchay between Russia and Persia, February 22. Russia declares war against Turkey, April 26. Last of the British troops leave Portugal, April 28. Don Miguel assumes title of king, May 3. Occupation of Bucharest by Russians, May 12. Passage of the Danube by Russians, June 8. Election of O’Connell M.P. for Clare, July 5; he refuses to take the oaths. Silistria invested by Russians, July 23. Peace concluded between Brazil and Buenos Ayres, August 29. The French land in the Morea, August 29. The Dardanelles closed by the Porte, September 18. Evacuation of Greece by Ibrahim Pasha, October 4. Varna taken by the Russians, October 11. The Morea evacuated by Turks, October 28. Siege of Silistria raised, November 10. Death of Lord Liverpool, December 4 (born, 1770). New Corn Law in England; Peel’s “Sliding Scale” established. Test Act and Corporation Act repealed. London University opened. The Athenoeum (literary journal) established.

1829. Death of Leo XII.,February 10. Andrew Jackson president of United States, March 4. Duel fought between Wellington and earl of Winchelsea, March 21. Pius Vlll. elected pope, March 31. Catholic Emancipation Act passed, April 13. Capture of Lepanto by the Greeks, May 9. Siege of Silistria resumed, May 17; it surrenders, June 18. General Paskiewich takes Erzeroum, July 9. Prince of Polignac first minister of Charles X., August 8. Adrianople entered by Russians, August 20. Peace of Adrianople signed, September 14. Suttee declared illegal, December 14. Rossini's Guillaume Tell produced.

1830. Independence of Greece declared by Allied Powers, February 3; acknowledged by the Porte, April 25. William IV. king of England, June 26. Suιτender of Algiers to the French, July 5. Charles X. issues the Six Ordinances, July 26. Paris declared in a state of siege, July 27. Flight of Charles X. from Paris, July 30. Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, appointed lieutenant-general of the kingdom, July 31. Abdication of Charles X., August 2. Louis Philippe proclaimed king of the French, August 9. Revolution at Brussels, August 25. Insurrection at Dresden, September 9. Disturbances at Berlin, Hamburg, and other German towns. Three days fighting between Dutch and Belgians at Brussels, September 19-21. Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened, September 15. Independence of Belgium proclaimed, October 4. Antwerp entered by Belgians, October 27; the Dutch bombard the city, October 28. Resignation of the Wellington ministry, November 15. The Grey ministry takes office, November 16. Revolution at Warsaw, November 29. Death of Pope Pius VIII., November 30. Death of Bolivar, December 17. Prince of Polignae, ex-minister of Charles X., convicted of high treason, and sentenced to imprisonment for life, December 21. Independence of Belgium recognized by Allied Powers, December 26. Expedition of the Landers to the Niger. Lyell’s Principles of Geology published. Tennyson’s Poems.

1831. Adam Czartoryski president of National Government of Poland, January 30. Gregory XVI. elected pope, February 2. Insurrection at Modena, February 5; suppressed by Austrians, March 10. The Russians defeated by the Poles at Grochow, February 20. Reform Bill introduced by Lord John Russell, March 1. Revolution in Brazil; abdication of the Emperor Pedro, April 7. British parliament dissolved, April 23. Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg elected king of Belgium, June 4. Death of Mrs Siddons, June 8 (born, 1755). Reform Bill re-introduced, June 24. Capture of the Portuguese fleet off Lisbon by French fleet, July 11. New London Bridge opened, August 1. Capitulation of Warsaw to Russians, September 7. Coronation of William IV. and Queen Adelaide, September 9. Reform Bill thrown out by House of Lords, October 7. Ibrahim Pasha undertakes conquest of Syria, October. Assassination of Count Capo d’Istria, October 9. Riots at Bristol, October 29. Treaty of London respecting Belgium, November 15. First appearance of Asiatic cholera in England, November. General Torrijos shot at Malaga, with fifty associates, December 4. Reform Bill introduced a third time, December 12. Negro insurrection in Jamaica, December 22. Hereditary peerage abolished in France, December 29. The British Association founded. Victor Hugo’s Nôtre Dams de Paris published.

1832. Occupation of Ancona by the French, February 23. Poland declared an integral part of Russian empire, February 26. Death of Goethe, March 22. Resignation of English ministers, May 9. Earl Grey returns to office, May 18. Death of Cuvier, May 13. The Reform Act passed, June 7. Acre taken by Ibrahim Pasha, July 2. Revision of Swiss Federal Pact, July 17. Prince Otho of Bavaria proclaimed king of Greece, August 30. Death of Sir Walter Scott, September 21. Ministry of Marshal Soult formed, October 11. Duchess of Berry imprisoned for sedition, November 7. Siege of Antwerp begun by the French, November 13. Dissolution of British parliament, December 3. Ibrahim Pasha defeats army of the Sultan at Konieh, December 20. Surrender of Antwerp, December 24. Heathcoat’s steam-plough patented. The Paris Charivari started. The Penny Magazine and Chambers's Edinburgh Journal begun. Ebenezer Elliott’s Corn-Law Rhymes published. George Sand’s Indiana.

1833. First Reform parliament of United Kingdom opened, January 29. King Otho lands at Nauplia, January 31. Mediation of France between the Porte and Mehemet Ali, Febraary 21. Andrew Jackson president (second term) of the United States, March 4. Trial and deposition of Edward Irving for heresy, March 13. Coercion Bill for Ireland passed, April 2. Santa Anna president of Mexican Republic, April 18. Treaty of Kutayeh between Egypt and the Porte, May 14. Death of Edmund Kean, May 15 (born 1787?). Capture of Don Miguel’s squadron by Admiral Napier, July 5. Treaty of peace and alliance (of “Unkiar Skelessi”) between Russia and Turkey, July 8. Evacuation of Lisbon by Miguelites; Donna María proclaimed Queen, July 23. Death of Wilberforce, July 29. Irish Chtιrch Temporalities Act passed, August 14. Abolition of slavery in the British Colonies (from August 1, 1834) by Act passed August 28. Death of Hannah More, September 7 (born, 1745). Isabella II. queen of Spain, September 29. Durham University opened. Artesian well opened at Grenelle, 1833-1841. Carlyle’s Sartor Resartus published. Keble’s Sermon on National Apostasy preached at Oxford (July). Penny Cyclopaedia begun (finished, 1843).

1834. Marshal Saldanha defeats the Miguelites at Santarem, February 18. Death of Lafayette, May 20 (born, 1757). Capitulation of Don Miguel, at Evora, May 26. Abolition of monasteries in Portugal, May 28. Shah Soojah defeated by Dost Mahomed, June 29. Resignation of Earl Grey and Lord Althorp, July 9. Lord Melbourne prime minister, July 14. Death of S. T. Coleridge, July 25. Emancipation of slaves in British colonies, August 1. The Poor Law Act passed, August 14. The Houses of Parliament burnt, October 16. The Melbourne ministry dissolved, November 15. Sir Robert Peel first lord of the treasury, December 8. First parliamentary grant for education in England. Oxford Tractsfor the Times begun. Ranke's Popes of Rome published, 1834-1836. Lytton’s Last Days of Pompeii and Rienzi First volume of Bancroft's History of the United Status.

1835. Ferdinand I. emperor of Austria, Match 2. Death of Wilhelm von Humboldt, April 8 (born, 1767). Resignation of the Peel ministry, April 8. Lord Melbourne again first lord, April 18. Revolt of Texas against Mexico, July. The Foreign Enlistment Bill suspended in favour of the queen of Spain, June 10. Death of William Cobbett, June 18. First battalion of auxiliary legion sails for Spain, July 2. Municipal Corporations (England) Reform Act passed, September 9. Conference of the emperors of Russia and Austria and the king of Prussia at Töplitz, October. Death of James Hogg, the “Ettrick Shepherd,” November 21 (born, 1772). Independence of Texas proclaimed, December 22. Revolver patented by Colt. Appearance of Halley’s Comet. Strauss’s Leben Jesu published. De Tocqueville’s Démocratie en Amérique. Merle d’Aubigné’s Histoire de la Réformation, vol. i.

1836. Death of Lord Stowell, January 28 (born, 1746). Μ. Thiers first minister of Louis Philippe, Febraary 22. Occupation of Cracow by Russian and Austrian troops, Febraary. Carlist entrenchments near Hemani taken by the English Legion, May 5. Death of Abbé Sieyès, June 20 (born, 1748). Revolution at Madrid, flight of Isturitz, August 12. Resignation of Μ. Thiers; Μ. Molé named president of the council, Μ. Guizot minister of public instruction, September 7. Revolution at Lisbon, September 9-10. Attempt of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte to excite insurrection at Strasburg, October 29. Death of Charles X. of France, November 6. Siege of Bilbao by Carlists raised by Espartero and the British, December 24. Adelaide, S. Australia, founded. Tithe Commutation Act passed. Dissenters’ Marriage Act.

1837. Death of Sir John Soane, January 20 (born, 1753). Martin van Buren president of United States, March 4. Hemani taken by Espartero, May 15. Iran stormed by General Evans, May 17. Victoria queen of England, June 20. The Carlists defeated at Valencia, July 15. The imperial parliament dissolved, July 17. Cholera rages on the continent, July-August. Don Carlos defeats the royal troops near Herrera, August 24. Marshal Saldanha and the duke of Terceira defeated, September 18.· The French Chamber of Deputies dissolved, fifty new peers created, October 4. Constantina in Algeria stormed by the French, October 13. The constitution of Hanover abrogated by. royal ordinance, November 1. Siege of Herat begun by Persians, November 22. Winter Palace, St Petersburg, burnt, December 29. Durham University incorporated. Punishment by the pillory abolished in England. Father Mathew’s temperance missions begun about this time. Carlyle’s French Revolution published. The Pickwick Papers. Ingoldsby Legends. Sara Coleridge’s Phantasmion.

1838. Royal Exchange, London, burnt, January 10. Death of Lord Eldon, January 13. Death of Talleyrand, May 17. Espartero defeats the Carlists, and takes Penacerrada, June 22. Coronation of Queen Victoria, June 28. The independence of Pera proclaimed, July 29. The siege of Herat raised, September 9. Resignation of Lord Durham, October 9. Death of Mrs Maclean (Letitia E. Landon), October 15 (boro, 1802). Lima evacuated by Chilians, November 10. End of the rebellion in Canada, about November 17. Chartist meetings declared illegal, December 12. International Copyright Act passed. Daguerreotype process discovered. National Gallery, London, opened. First voyage of “Great Western” across the Atlantic. London and Birmingham Railway opened.

1839. Occupation of Aden by troops of East India Company, January 20. The Anti-Com-Law League formed, March 20. Treaty of London respecting affairs of Holland and Belgium, April 19. Occupation of Candahar by Anglo-Indian army, April 26. Death of Lord William Bentinck, June 17 (born, 1774). Death of Lady Hester Stanhope, in Syria, June 23 (born 1776). Total defeat of Turkish army under Hafiz Pasha by Ibrahim Pasha, on the Euphrates, June 25. Abdul-Medjid sultan, July 1. Chartist riot at Birmingham, July 15. Ghizni stormed by Sir John Keane, July 22. Shah Soojah restored to sovereignty of Cabul, August 7. Passage of the Khyber Pass by Lieŭt. -Col. Wade, September 3. John Williams, missionary, murdered at Erromanga, November 20. Christian VIII. king of Denmark, December 3. The Pope prohibits the slave trade, December 3. Trial and conviction of John Frost and other Chartists for high treason, December 24-31. Copyright in Designs Act passed. First English settlement in New Zealand. Gold discovered in Australia. Committee of Privy Council on Education appointed. Bailey’s Festus published.

1840. Death of Madame D’Arblay, January 6 (born, 1752). Penny postage in Great Britain comes into operation, January 10. Marriage of Queen Victoria with Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg, Febraary 10. Ministry of Μ. Thiers, March 1. Death of Paganini, May 27 (born, 1784). Surrender of Carlist General Morelia, May 28. Frederick William IV. king of Prussia, June 7. Insurrection in Syria against Mehemet Ali, June 7. Blockade of Canton by the English, June 28. Capture of Chusan, July 5. Treaty of London between the sultan and Mehemet Ali, July 15; ratified, September 15. Death of Ottfried Müller, August 1 (born, 1797). Attempt of Louis Napoleon to excite insurrection at Boulogne; he is arrested, August 6. Abdication of king of Holland, October 7; William II. s⅛cceeds, Death of Lord Hofland, October 22 (born, 1773). Marshal Soult again first minister, October 29. Dost Mahomed surrenders to Sir W. Macnaghten, November 2. The remains of Napoleon I. landed at Cherbourg, November 30, and deposited in the Hôtel des Invalides, December 15. The papal nuncio expelled from Spain, December 29. Association for the Repeal of the Union (Ireland) established. Irish Municipal Corporations Reform Act passed. Ozone observed by Schönbein. Coleridge’s Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit published. Carlyle’s , Heroes and Hero-Wor ship.

1841. Capture of the Bogue Forts, Canton, by the English, January 7. The sultan concedes hereditary pashalic of Egypt to Mehemet Ali, January 27. Union of Upper and Lower Canada proclaimed, Febraary 10. General Harrison president of United States, March 4. Differences between the Sultan and Mehemet Ali arranged, March 5. No. XC. of Oxford “Tracts for the Times” condemned, March 15 Death of President Harrison, April 4; Vice-President John Tyler succeeds. Attack on Canton and capitulation of the Chinese authorities, May 24. Russian campaign against Circassians begins, May. Death of Wilkie, June 1, (born 1785). Insurrection in Candia, June; suppressed, August. Capture of Amoy, August 26. Resignation of Lord Melbourne, August 30. The second Peel administration formed. Birth of the Prince of Wales, November 9. Attack on the English at Cabul, Sir Alexander Bumes and others murdered, Nov. 14. Death of Sir F. Chantrey, November 25, (born, 1781). Assassination of Sir W. Macnaghten at Cabul, December 23. Copyhold Enfranchisement Act passed. Mormon Temple at Nauvoo founded. Punch begun. Emerson’s Essays published.

1842. Retreat of the English from Cabul, January 6; they are massacred in the Khoord Cabul Pass, to January 13. Lord Ellenborough governor-general of India, February 28. Death of Cherubini, March 10 (born, 1760). The Afghans repulsed at Jellalabad by Sir R. Sale, April 7. General Pollock forces the Khyber Pass, April 5-14; and relieves Sale at Jellalabad, April 16. New com-law passed, April 29. Chartist procession in London, monster petition to parliament, May 2. Great fire at Hamburg, May 5-7. The English enter the Yang-tsze-Keang, June 13-16. Shanghai entered, June 19. Defeat and submission of the Boers of Natal, June 26. Treaty of commerce between Belgium and France, July 16. Chin-Keang-foo taken by Sir Hugh Gough, July 21. The Maine boundary settled by “Ashburton Treaty” between Great Britain and United States, August 9. Treaty of peace between Great Britain and China, August 26 (ratified, December 31). Tahiti taken possession of by the French, September 8. Cabul re-entered by Pollock and Nott, September 15. Death of Channing, October 2 (born 1780). Cabul evacuated by the English, October 12. Insurrection at Barcelona, Nov. 13; suppressed Dec. 3. Income and property tax imposed in Great Britain. Steam hammer patented. The Walhalla opened by king of Bavaria. Lytton’s Zanoni published. Macaulay’s Lays of Ancient Rome. Illustrated London News begun.

1843. The stronghold of the Baluches taken by Sir C. Napier. January. Battle of Meeanee, Febraary 17. Occupation of Hyderabad, February 20. Disturbances in Wales (“Rebeccas Daughters ”), Feb. Appearance of a great comet, March. Death of Southey, March 21. Disraption of the Church of Scotland; origination of the Free Church, May 18. Annexation of Natal to Cape Colony, May. Sir C. Napier defeats Shere Mahomed and ends the war, June. Annexation of Sinde to British India. Monster repeal meeting on the hill of Tara, August 15. Arrest of O’Connell and other repealers, October 14. The queen of Spain declared of age by the Cortes, November 8. Battle of Maharajpore —defeat of Mahrattas by Sir Hugh Gough, and battle of Punniar, December 29. Occupation of Gwalior. Site of Nineveh discovered by Botta. The Thames tunnel opened. Mill’s Logic published. Macaulay’s Essays. Carlyle’s Past and Present.

1844. Death of Sir Francis Burdett, January 23 (born 1770). Death of Lord Sidmouth, Febraary 15 (born 1757). Death of Thorwaldsen, March 24 (born 1770). Sir Henry Hardinge governor-general of I ndia, Μ ay 6. W ar between F rance and Marocco begins, May 30. The Mormon prophet, Joseph Smith, murdered, June 27; Brigham Young appointed his successor. Bank of England Charter Act passed, July 19. Death of Joseph Bonaparte, July 28 (born 1768). Bombardment of Tangiers by Prince de Joinville, August 6. Victory of the French over the Moors at Isly, August 14. Capture of Mogador, August 15. Treaty of peace between France and Marocco, September 6. The Codex Sinaitixus discovered by Tischendorf.

1845. Death of Sydney Smith, February 22 (born 1771). Admission of Iowa and Florida as States of the Union, March 1. James Knox Polk president of the United States, March 4. Death of Thomas Hood, May 3 (born 1798). Arctic expedition under Sir John Franklin (his last) sails, May 23. Mexico declares war against United States, June 4. General Pelissier suffocates one of the Kabyle tribes in the cave of Dahra, June 20. Maynooth College incorporated and endowed, June 30. Death of Earl Grey, July 17 (bora, 1764). Death of Judge Story, September 10 (born 1779). Squadron of French cavalry cut to pieces by Abd-el-Kader, September 16. Death of Earl Spencer (Lord Althorp), October 1 (born 1782). Death of Elizabeth Fry, October 12 (born 1780). Sir Hugh Gough defeats the Sikhs at Moodkee, December 18. Sir Hugh Gough again defeats the Sikhs at Ferozeshah, December 21, 22. Railway mania and panic in England. Failure of potato crop in Great Britain and Ireland. Gun-cotton invented. Lord Rosse’s great telescope erected. Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation published. Newman’s Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine.

1846. The Sikhs routed by Sir H. Smith at Aliwal, January 28. Battle of Sobraon, Febraary 10. Citadel of Lahore occupied by Gough, Febraary 22. Famine in Ireland. Treaty of Lahore, March 8. Narvaez driven from Spain, April 7. General Taylor defeats the Mexicans at Palo Alto, May 8; again, at Resaca de la Palma, May 9. Escape of Louis Napoleon from Ham, May 26. Death of Pope Gregory XVI., June 1. Treaty of Washington for settlement of the Oregon boundary, June 15. Election of Pope Pius IX., June 16. Suicide of B. R. Haydon, June 22 (born 1786). Repeal of English com laws by Act passed -June 26. Resignation of the Peel ministry, June 29. First Russell administration formed, July 6. Death of Louis Bonaparte, ex-king of Holland, July 25. Capture of Santa Fé by Americans, and annexation of New Mexico to United States, August 23. Affair of the Spanish marriages, September. Capture of Monterey, Mexico, by General Taylor, September 24. The Spanish marriages (of the queen and the Infanta) celebrated at Madrid, October 10. Cracow annexed to Austria, November 16. Santa Anna president of Mexico, December 6. Constitutional charter of New Zealand granted, December 29. The “Sonderbund” formed by Catholic cantons of Switzerland. Evangelical Alliance established. Discovery of the planet Neptune. Grote’s History of Greece, vols. i. and ii. published (completed, 1856).

1847. Frederick William IV. convokes a parliament at Berlin, February 3. Mexicans defeated at Buena Vista, Febraary 22, 23. Vera Cruz capitulates to General Scott, March 28. Capture of the Bogue Forts at Canton by the English, April 3. General Scott enters Jalapa, April 19. Death of O’Connell, May 15 (born 1774). Death of Dr Chalmers, May 31 (bora 1780). Death of Sir John Franklin near Lancaster Sound, June 11. Earl of Dalhousie governor-general of India, August 4. Expulsion of the Jesuits decreed by Swiss Diet, September 3. Mexico bombarded by General Scott, September 14, 15, and the city taken. Roman Catholic hierarchy established in England, October. Death of Mendelssohn, November 4 (born 1809). Amιy of the Sonderbund defeated at Freiburg, November 13. Sonderbund dissolved. Surrender of Abd-el-Kader to the duke of Aumale, December 22. Crime and Outrage Act in force in Ireland, December 23. Manchester erected into a bishopric. Salt Lake city founded by Mormons. Jenny Lind in England. Charlotte Bronte’s Jane Eyre published.

1848. Disturbances at Milan, January 3. Insurrection at Messina, January 6. Frederick VII. king of Denmark, January 20. Gold discovered in California, January. Riots at Munich, February 9-12. Reform banquet at Paris prohibited, Febraary 21. Death of ex-president John Quincy Adams, Febraary 21. Martial law proclaimed in Lombardy, Febraary 22. Street fighting in Paris, February 23. Attack on the Tuileries, abdication of Louis Philippe, Febraary 24. The Republic proclaimed, Febraary 26. Insurrection at Munich, March 4. Income-tax riots in London, many arrests made, March 6. Revolution at Vienna, flight of Prince Metternich, March 13, 14. Insurrection at Berlin, March 17. Insurrection at Milan, flight of the viceroy, March 18. Abdication of the King of Bavaria, March 21. The Spanish Cortes suspended sine die, March 22. Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, invades Lombardy, March 23. Revolt of Schleswig and Holstein, March 25. The Danes defeat the Holsteiners and Prussians near Flensborg, April 10. Chartist demonstration on Kennington Common, April 10. Deposition of King Ferdinand by Sicilian parliament, April 13. The Prussians take Schleswig and Flensborg, April 22. Abolition of slavery in the French dominions decreed, April 27. National Assembly opened at Paris, May 4. Flight of the emperor Ferdinand from Vienna, May 17. German “National Assembly” meets at Frankfort, May 18. Treaty between Mexico and United States for cession of California and New Mexico, ratified, May 19. Prussian Constituent Assembly meets at Berlin, May 22. Insurrection renewed at Vienna, May 27. Charles Albert defeats Austrians at Goito, May 29, 30. Insurrection at Prague, May 29. Annexation of Lombardy to Sardinia proclaimed, June 4. Battle of Düppel, June5,6. PrinceLouis Napoleon electe'd deputy to National Assembly, June 12. Surrender of Padua to Austrians, June 15. Insurrection at Paris, June 23; suppressed by General Cavaignac, dictator, June 24-26. The archbishop of Paris shot while mediating, June 26. Death of Heinrich Zschokke, June 27 (bora, 17∙70). Death of Chateaubriand, July 4 (born, 1768). Revolt of Slavonia and Croatia, under Jellachich, July 9. Suspension of Habeas Corpus Act in Ireland, July 24. Charles Albert defeated, July 27. Insurrection attempted in Ireland under O’Brien, July 29. The Sardinians capitulate to Radetsky at Milan, August 4. Death of Berzelius August 7 (boro, 1779). Return of the emperor to Vienna, August 12. Death of George Stephenson, August 12 (born, 1781). Trials of the Chartists in London begin, August 25; end, September 30. Sir Henry Smith routs the Dutch rebels at the Cape, August 29. Ibrahim Pasha viceroy of Egypt, September 1. Bombardment and capture of Messina by General Filangieri, September 2-7. Bombardment of Mooltan by the English begun, September 12; siege raised, September 22. Prince Louis Napoleon again elected deputy to National Assembly (for six departments), September 20. Death of Lord George Bentinck, September 21 (born, 1802). The Ban Jellachich defeated near Buda by Hungarians, September 29. Insurrection at Vienna, October 6. Flight of the emperor, October 7. Vienna assaulted by Prince Windischgrätz, October 28; taken, November 1. Constitution of French Republic adopted, November 4. Repulse of Sikhs before Mooltan, November 7. General Wrangel entera Berlin and expels Assembly, November 10. Death of Ibrahim Pasha, November 10. Assassination of Count Rossi, first minister to Pius IX. at Rome, November 15. The Pope accepts a democratic ministry. Flight of the Pope in disguise to Gaeta, November 24. Death of Lord Melbourne, November 24 (born, 1779). Abdication of emperor Ferdinand I. in favour of his nephew Francis Joseph, December 2. The king of Prussia dissolves the Constituent Assembly, and publishes a constitution, December 5. Provisional government at Rome appointed by the Chambers, December 11. Jellachich defeats Hungarians at Weisburg, December 18. Louis Napoleon president of the French Republic, December 20. Defeat of Hungarians by General Schlick at Kaschau, December 21; again, at Szikszö, December 28; and at Mohr, December 29. Thackeray’s Vanity Fair published. Lowell’s Biglow Papers. Mill’s Political Economy. Μ rs Gaskell’s Mary Barton.

1849. Mooltan stormed by General Whish, January 2. Buda-Pesth taken by Windischgrätz, January 5. Lord Gough defeats the Sikhs at Chillianwallah, January 13. Constituent Assembly meets at Rome, February 5. Flight of grand duke of Tuscany, provisional government at Florence, February 7. Republic proclaimed at Rome, Feb. 8. Lord Gough routs the Sikhs at Gujerat, February 21. French and English ultimatum to the king of Naples, February 26; accepted, March 4. Gold rush on California, spring. General Taylor president of United States, March 4. Dissolution of Austrian Diet, new constitution published, March 7. The Sicilians reject the ultimatum of mediating powers, March 9. Sardinia resumes hostilities with Austria, March 12. Death of Mezzofanti, March 15 (born, 1774). Radetzky defeats the Sardinians and. takes possession of Mortara, March 21; defeats them at Novara, March 23. Abdication of Charles Albert in favour of his son, Victor Emmanuel, March 24. Annexation of the Punjab to British India, March 29. The Grand Duke of Tuscany recalled, April 12. The Danes defeated at Düppeler heights, April 13. Independence of Hungary proclaimed; Kossuth appointed governor, April 14. The Germans enter Jutland, April 20. Siege of Komora raised, and Buda-Pesth evacuated by Austrians, April. Alessandria occupied by Austrians, April 24. Insurrection at Montreal, April 26. Occupation of Civita Vecchia by French troops under General Oudinot, April 26. Insurrection at Dresden, May 3; city bombarded by Russians and Saxons, May 7; insurrection suppressed, May 10. Leghorn taken by Austrians, May 12, 13; and Bologna, May 16. Buda stormed by Görgei, May 21. Death of Maria Edgeworth, May 21 (born, 1767). Siege of Rome by French begins, June 3. Death of countess of Blessington, June 4 (born, 1789). Banicades and fighting in Paris, June 14. Death of ex-president Polk, June 15. The Russians invade Hungary, June 17. Capitulation of Ancona, June 18. Alessandria evacuated, June 19. Defeat of Görgei at Szered by the Russians, June 21. The Pmssians defeat the Baden insurgents and enter Heidelberg and Mannheim, June 23. Carlsruhe occupied by Prassians, March 23. Death of K. G. Zumpt, June 25 (born, 1792). Surrender of Rome, entry of the French, July 3. The Danes defeat the Germans besieging Fredericia, July 6. Bombardment of Pesth begun, July 11. Battle of Waitzen, July 14-17. Restoration of the temporal power of the Pope proclaimed, July 15. Hungarians defeated by Russians at Schässburg, July 31. Judgment in Court of Arches in “Gorham Case,” adverse to plaintiff, Aug. 2. Death of Mehemet Ali, August 2 (born, 1769). Treaty of Milan between Austria and Sardinia, August 6. Defeat of Hungarians by Haynau at Temeswar, August 9. Kossuth resigns governorship; Görgei appointed dictator. Aug 11. Surrender of Görgei and the Hungarian army to the Russians, August 13. Surrender of Venice to Austrians, August 22. Hayti proclaimed an empire under Soulouque, August 26. Riot at Montreal, September 15. The Porte refuses to give up Hungarian refugees demanded by Persia and Austria, September 16. Surrender of Komom to Austrians, September 28. Execution of Batthyany at Pesth, October 6. Death of E. A. Poe, October 7 (born, 1811). Death of Etty, November 13 (born, 1787). Death of the queendowager Adelaide, December 2 (boro, 1792). Death of Sir Μ. I. Branel, December 12 (born, 1769). Cholera in London. The Queen’s Colleges, Ireland, and Encumbered Estates Court, opened. Discovery of Lake N’gami by Livingstone. Macaulay’s History of England, vols. i. and ii. published (completed, 1862). Lytton’s The Caxlons. Notes and Queries begun.

1850. Blockade of the Piraeus by Admiral Sir William Parker, January 18-March 1. Death of Oehlenschläger, January 20 (born, 1779). Death of Francis Jeffrey, January 26 (born, 1773.) Treaty for German Union concluded between Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtemberg, Febmary 27. Judgment in Gorham Case reversed by Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, March 8. Party processions in Ireland prohibited ’ by Act passed March 12. North German parliament opened at Erfurt, March 20. Death of J. C. Calhoun, March 31 (boro, 1782). Death of Wordsworth, April 24 (born, 1770). Greek Government submits to English demands, April 25, 26. Tenant Right agitation in Ireland, summer. Death of Sir Robert Peel, July 2 (born, 1788). Peace between Denmark, Prussia, and the German Confederation, July 2. Death of President Taylor, July 9; vice-president Filmore succeeds him. Death of Neander, July 14 (boro, 1789). Cracow burnt, July 18. Victory of the Danes over the Schleswig-Holsteiners at Idsted, July 25. Death of Balzac, August 18 (born, 1799). Death of Louis Philippe, August 26 (born, 1773). Flight of elector of Hesse Cassel, September 13; he is restored, December 27. Victory of the Danes at Missunde, September 13. Pius IX. establishes Catholic hierarchy in England, September 24. Alliance between Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, and Würtemberg, October 4. California admitted a State of the Union. First submarine telegraph between England and France laid. Britannia Bridge, Menai Strait, opened. North-west Passage discovered by M ’ Clure. Wordsworth's Prelude published. Tennyson’s In Memoriam. DobelΓs The Roman. Carlyle’s Latter Day Pamphlets. Thackeray’s Pendennis. Dickens’s David Copperfield. Wagner’s Lohengrin produced.

1851. Death of J. J. Audubon, January 27 (born, 1780.) Occupation of Hamburg by Austrians, January 29. Occupation of Lübeck, February 4. Gold-digging commenced in Australia, Febmary. Death of Oersted, March 9 (born, 1777). Insurrection at Lisbon under Saldanha, April 10. The London Great Exhibition opened, May 1 (closed, October 11). Rebellion in South China, June. Evacuation of Cassel by Austro-Bavarian army begun, August 1. Death of J. Fenimore Cooper, September 14 (born, 1789). Return of Prince Metternich to Vienna, September 23. Capitulation of Oribe at Monte Video, October 7; the city entered by Urquiza, October 8. Death of duchess of Angoulême, October 19. Death of Marshal Soult, November 26 (born, 1765). Coup d’État at Paris, December 2, 3. Death of Turner, December 19 (born, 1775). Louis Napoleon elected president of French Republic for ten years, December 20, 21. Dismissal of Lord Palmerston from office, December 22. Ecclesiastical Titles A:5sumption Act passed. Owens College, Manchester, founded. Herbert Spencer’s Social Statics published. Ruskin’s Stones of Venice (1851-1853). Carlyle’s Life of John Sterling.

1852. New constitution published by Louis Napoleon, January 14. The property of the Orleans family confiscated, January 22. Urquiza defeats Rosas, Febmary 3, and occupies Buenos Ayres, February 4. Holstein evacuated by Austrians, Febmary. Resignation of the Russell ministry, Febmary 21. First Derby administration formed, Febmary 27. Death of Thomas Moore, Febmary 26 (born, 1779). Death of Prince Schwarzenberg, April 5 (born, 1800). Martaban and Rangoon captured by the English, April 5 and 14. Treaty of London respecting Denmark and the duchies, May 8. Pegu taken by the English, June 4. Urquiza provisional director of Argentine Confederation, June 23. Death of Henry Clay, June 29 (born, 1777). Prome taken by the English, July 9, afterwards evacuated; retaken, November 21. Treaty recognizing the independence of Paraguay, July 17. Deposition of Urquiza, September 10. Death of the duke of Wellington, September 14 (born, 1769). Death of Daniel Webster, October 24 (born, 1782). Plébiscite in France as to re-establishment of the empire, November 21, 22, Louis Napoleon proclaimed emperor as Napoleon III., December 2. Resignation of the Derby ministry, December 17. Annexation of Pegu to British India, December 20. Coalition ministry under the earl of Aberdeen, December 27. Representative constitution granted to New Zealand. University of Sydney opened. Drainage of lake of Haarlem, 1849-1852. Deutsches IVörtcrbuch of J. and W. Grimm begun. Thackeray’s Esmond published. Mrs Stowe’s Uncle Toms Cabin.

1853. Revolution in Mexico, January. Marriage of Napoleon III. to Eugénie de Montijo, January 29. Termination of the Kaffir war, Febmary 22. General Pierce president of the United States, March 4. Nanking taken by the Taepings, March 21. General Santa Anna president of republic of Mexico, April 1. Death of Tieck, April 28 (born, 1773). Prince Menschikoff presents Russian ultimatum to the Porte, May 5; leaves Constantinople, May 21. Russian army crosses the Prath, July 2. Cholera breaks out in England, September 4. Shanghai taken by the Taepings, September 7. Death of Arago, October 2 (born, 1786). English and French fleets enter the Dardanelles, October 22. War between Russia and the Porte begins, October 23. Russians enter Danubian principalities, November. Destraction of Turkish fleet at Sinope by Admiral Nachimoff, November 30. Maurice’s Theological Essays published. Ritter’s Geschichte der Philosophie completed. Lytton’s My Novel.

1854. French and English fleets enter the Black Sea, January 4. Declaration of war against Russia by France, March 27, by England, March 28. Death of John Wilson (Christopher North), April 3 (bora, 1785). Treaties of alliance between England and France signed, April 10, and between Austria and Prussia, April 20. Bombardment of Odessa by French and English fleets, April 22. Death of marquis of Anglesey, April 29 (born, 1768). Death of James Montgomery, April 30 (born, 1771). Silistria unsuccessfully besieged by Russians, May 17 to June 15. The allies land at Varna, May 29. Treaty of Washington signed, June 7. Opening of Crystal Palace, Sydenham, June 10. Insurrection in Spain under O’Donnell, June 27. Battle of Giurgevo, July 8. Bomarsund taken by allies, August 16. Death of Schelling, August 20 (bora, 1775). Occupation of Bucharest by Austrians, September 6. Landing of the allies in the Crimea, September 14. Battle of the Alma, September 20. Occupation of Balaklava by the allies, September 28. Bombardment of Sebastopol begins, October 17. Battle of Balaklava, October 25; of Inkerman, November 5. Death of Charles Kemble, November 12 (born, 1775). Death of Lockhart, November 25 (born, 1794). Treaty of alliance between Austria, England, and France, December 2. Dogma of the Immaculate Conception promulgated at Rome, December 8. Lake dwellings discovered in Switzerland. Armstrong gun made. Murchison’s Siluria published. George Sand's Histoire de ma Vic.

1855. Sardinia joins the allies, January 26. The Palmerston administration in office, Febraary 6. Death of the emperor Nicholas of Russia, March 2. Defeat of the Taepings at Canton, March 6. Death of Charlotte Bronté, March 31 (born, 1816). Universal Exhibition opened at Paris, May 15. Newspaper stamp abolished in Great Britain, June 15. Death of Lord Raglan, June 28 (born, 1788). Death of Sir W. E. Parry, July 8 (born, 1790). Battle of the Tchernaya, August 16. Concordat between Austria and the Holy See, August 18. Storming of the Malakoff and Redan, Septembers; southside of Sebastopol evacuated by the Russians. Defeat of the Russians before Kars, September 29. Death of Sir William Molesworth, October 22 (born, 1810). Capitulation of Kars to General Mouravieff, November 28. Visit of King Victor Emmanuel to Queen Victoria, November 30 to December 6. Death of Samuel Rogers, December 18 (born, 1762). Bessemer’s process for manufacture of steel patented. Niagara Railway Suspension Bridge completed. Milman's Latin Christianity published. Tennyson’s Maud. Thackeray’s The Newcomcs. Saturday Review begun.

1856. Vienna protocol as basis of peace with Russia signed, February 1. Annexation of Oudh to British India, Febraary 7. Death of Heine, February 17 (born, 1800). Lord Canning governor-general of India, February 29. Free State Legislature in Kansas constituted, March 4. Treaty of Paris signed, March 30. Kansas refused admission into the Union, April 11. Death of Sir William Hamilton, May 6 (born, 1788). Death of Augustin Thierry, May 21 (born 1795). Evacuation of the Crimea by allies, July 12. Death of Schumann, July 29 (born, 1810). Coronation of the czar, Alexander 11., September 7. Seizure of a “lorcha” under British flag by Chinese, October 8. Herat taken by Persians, October 13. War proclaimed against Persia by governor-general of India, November 1. Bombardment of Canton by British fleet, November 3. Death of Paul Delaroche, November 4 (bora, 1797). Capture of the Bogue Forts, Canton, November 12, 13. Bushire taken by British force, December 10. Death of Hugh Miller, December 24 (born, 1802). Mrs Browning’s Aurora Leigh published. Finlay’s History of Greece. Froude’s History of England, vol. i. (completed, 1869). Max Müller’s Comparative Mythology.

1857. Assassination of the archbishop of Paris (Sibour), January 3. Mutinies of Sepoy regiments at Barrackpore, Berhampore, and Lucknow, January-May. General Outram defeats Persians at Khooshab, Febraary 8. Treaty of peace with Persia, March 4. James Buchanan president of United States, March 4. Abolition of the Sound dues, March 14. Mutiny of Sepoys at Meerut, May 10,11. The mutineers at Delhi, May 11. Mutiny at Lucknow, May 30. Mutineers under Nana Sahib repulsed at Cawnpore by Sir Hugh Wheeler, June 7. Death of Douglas Jerrold, June 8 (born, 1803). Capitulation of Europeans at Cawnpore to Nana Sahib, June 25. Massacre of women and children at Cawnpore, July 15. Death of Béranger, July 16 (born, 1780). General Havelock enters Cawnpore, July 17. Death of Eugène Sue, August 3 (born, 1804). Visit of Napoleon III. and the empress to Queen Victoria, August 8. Attempt to lay first Atlantic telegraph cable fails, August 11. Death of Comte, September 5 (born, 1798). Delhi stormed by Generals Wilson and Nicholson, September 14-20. Relief of Lucknow by General Havelock, September 25. Meeting of Napoleon III. and Alexander II. at Stuttgart, September 25. The garrison of Lucknow rescued by Sir Colin Campbell, November 22. Death of Sir Henry Havelock at Alumbagh, November 25 (born, 1795). Bombardment and capture of Canton by English and French, December 28, 29. Civil war in Kansas, end of December. Social Science Association founded. Mont Cenis tunnel begun. Tregelles’ edition of the Greek Testament, 1857- 1872. Livingstone’s Missionary Travels published.

1858. Death of Marshal Radetzky, January 5 (born 1766). Orsini attempts to assassinate Napoleon III., January 14. Launch of the “Great Eastern,” January 31. Resignation of Lord Palmerston, Febraary 20. The Derby ministry installed, Febraary 27. The Livingstone expedition sails, March 10. Siege of Lucknow begins, March 8; the town taken, March 19-21. Minnesota admitted a State of the Union, May 11. Capture of the Peiho forts by English and French, May 19. Great eruption of Vesuvius begins, May 21. Gwalior retaken by Sir Hugh Rose, and Sin<fta reinstated, June 19. Treaty of Tientsin concluded, June 26. Property qualification of members of parliament abolished by Act passed, June 28. Jews Relief Act passed, July 23. Visit of the Queen and the Prince Consort to Napoleon III. at Cherbourg, August 4, 5. Death of George Combe, August 14 (born, 1788). Atlantic cable completed, and first message received, August 20. The Danubian Principalities constituted, August 20. Commercial treaty between Great Britain and Japan signed, August 26. Government of India transferred from the Company to the Crown, September 1. Death of Robert Owen, November 17 (born about 1770). Trial of Count de Montalembert at Paris, November 25. Donati’s comet discovered, June 2. Lake Victoria Nyanza discovered by Speke. First vol. of Buckle’s Introduction to the History of Civilization published (vol. ii., 1861). Tennyson’s Idylls of the King (first series). Carlyle’s Frederick the Great (completed, 1865).

1859. Miramon president of Mexico, January 6. Death of Henry Hallam, January 21 (born, 1778). Celebration of centenary of the birth of Bums, January 25. Death of W. H. Prescott, January 28 (born 1796). Oregon admitted a State of the Union, February 12. Ultimatum of Austria, demanding disarmament of Sardinia, April 23. Death of Dr Lardner, April 29 (born, 1793). Revolution at Florence, flight of the grand duke of Tuscany, April 27. Declaration of war against Austria by Victor Emmanuel, April 27. The Austrian army crosses the Ticino, April 29. Declaration of war against Austria by Napoleon III., May 3. Death of Alexander von Humboldt, May 6 (born, 1769). Battle of Montebello, May 20. Garibaldi occupies Como, May 27. Battle of Magenta, June 4. Death of David Cox, June 7 (born, 1783). Entry of Napoleon and Victor Emmanuel into Milan, June 8. Annexation of Lombardy to Sardinia proclaimed. Death of Prince Metternich, June 11 (born, 1773). Resigrration of the Derby ministry, June 17. Palmerston ministry, June 20. Repulse o t French and English squadron on the Peiho, June 24, 25. Battle of Solferirro, June 24. Volunteer movement in England, June. Meeting of the Emperors Francis Joseph and Napoleon 111. at Villafranca, July 7. Treaty signed, July 11. Confiscation of Church property in Mexico by Juarez, July 13. Acts for establishment of reserve forces of seamen and soldiers passed, August 13. Schamyl captured by the Russians, August 26. Concordat between Rome and Spairr, August 26. Death of Leigh Hunt, August 28 (born, 1784). Death of Isambard K. Brunel, September 15 (born, 1806). Death of Robert Stephenson, October 12 (born, 1803). Negro insurrection at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia, under John Brown, October 17; Brown hanged, December 2. Spain declares war against Marocco, October 22. Death of Ludwig Spohr, October 22 (born, 1784). Treaty of Zurich signed, November 10. Death of Washington Irving, November 28. Sardinian constitution proclaimed, December 7. Death of De Quincey, December 8 (born, 1786). Death of Lord Macaulay, December 28 (born, 1800). The Victoria Bridge, Montreal, opened. Lake Nyassa explored by Livingstone. George Eliot’s Adam Bede published. Darwin’s Origin of Species. Ewald’s Geschichte des Volkes Israel completed. Sir. W. Hamilton’s Lectures on Metaphysics (completed, 1861). Thackeray’s Virginians. Comhill Magazine established.

1860. General Prim defeats the Moors at Castillejos, January 1. Count Cavour president of the council in new kingdom of Italy, January 21. Treaty of commerce between Great Britain and France signed at Paris, January 23. Tetuan taken by O’Donnell, February 6. Death of Sir William Napier, Febraary 12 (born, 1785). Ultimatum of Great Britain sent to Chinese Government, March 8. Insurrection in Sicily, March 15. Death of Mrs Jameson, March 17 (born, 1796). Annexation of Tuscany to Sardinia, March 22. Cession of Savoy and Nice to France by treaty of Turin, March 24. Treaty of peace between Spain and Marocco, April 26. Death of Theodore Parker, May 10 (born, 1810). Japanese embassy received at Washington, May 14. Palermo entered by Garibaldi, May 27. Transfer of Savoy and Nice to the French empire, June 14. First voyage of the “Great Eastern” across the Atlantic, June 17 to 27. Battle of Melazzo, June 20. Massacres of Maronites by the Drases in Syria, May 21 and July 9. Prince of Wales sails for Canada and the United States, July 9. Insurrection at Naples, August 17. Capture of the Taku forts by the allied French and English forces, August 21. Occupation of Tientsin, August 23. Garibaldi enters Naples, September 8, and proclaims Victor Emmanuel, September 9. The allies advance on Peking, September 9. Italian troops enter the States of the Church, September 11. Death of Schopenhauer, September 21 (born, 1787∣. Capitulation of Ancona to the Sardinians, September 29. Garibaldi defeats the Neapolitans at the Volturno, October 1. Summer palace of the emperor of China sacked by the French, October 6. New σonstitution of Austrian empire established by imperial diploma, October 20. Treaty of peace signed at Peking, October 24. Death of the earl of Dundonald, October 30 (born, 1775). Annexation of the Two Sicilies to Sardinia announced, November 3. Annexation of territory on the Amur by Russia, November 14. Death of Baron Bunsen, November 28 (born, 1791). Death of Dr Ferdinand Baur, December 2 (born, 1792). Secession of South Carolina from the Union, December 20. Annexation of the Marches, Umbria, Naples, and Sicily to dominions of Victor Emmanuel, December 26. Spectrum analysis established by Bunsen and Kirchhoff. Discovery of oil wells in Pennsylvania. The “Warrior,” first British ironclad steamer launched. Essays and Reviews published. Mill’s On Liberty.

1861. William I. king of Prussia, January 2. Famine in Northwestern provinces of India. Secession of Mississippi from the Union, January 9; followed by that of Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas, January 10-February 1. Kansas admitted a State of the Union, January 29. Cession of Mentone and Roquebrune to France, February 2. Confederate States constituted under presidency of Jefferson Davis, February 4. Capture of Gaeta by General Cialdini, February 13. First Italian parliament meets at Turin, February 18. New constitution of Austrian empire decreed by patent, February 26. Dakota (U.S.) organised as a territory, March 2. Emancipation of the serfs in Russia decreed by the Czar, March 3. Abraham Lincoln president of United States, March 4. Title of king of Italy conferred on Victor Emmanuel, March 17. Annexation of St Domingo to Spain, March 18. Bombardment and capture of Fort Sumter, Charleston, by Confederates, April 12,13. Secession of Virginia, April 17. Blockade of Southern ports, April 19 Secession of Arkansas, May 6, of Tennessee, May 8, of N. Carolina, May 20. Death of Count Cavour, June 6 (born, 1810). Paper duty in Great Britain abolished by Act passed June 12. Confederate States recognized as belligerents by Great Britain and France, June 15 Death of Lord Campbell, June 23 (born, 1779). Abdul Aziz sultan of the Ottomans, June 25. Death of Mrs Browning, June 29 (born, 1809). Juarez president of Mexico, June 30. Confederate congress sits at Richmond, Va., July 20. First battle of Bull Run (Manassas), July 21. Visit of Queen Victoria and the Prince Consort to Ireland, August 21-29. Meeting of Napoleon III. and the king of Prussia at Compiegne, October 6. Seizure of Confederate commissioners on board the British steamer “Trent,” November 8; they are surrendered, December 28. Death of Father Ijacordaire, November 22 (born, 1802). Italian ambassador leaves Madrid, November 26. Jefferson Davis elected president of Confederate States for six years, November 30. Death of the Prince Consort, December 14, (born, 1819). Ningpo taken by the Taepings, December 23. Principality of Roumania formed by union of Moldavia and Wallachia, December 23. Suspension of cash payments in Federal States, December 31. Post-Office Savings Banks opened in England. Storm warnings begun by Fitzroy. Stanley’s Eastern Church published. Hymns Ancient and Modem. Max Müller’s Science of Language.

1862. Death of Biot, Febmary 3 (born, 1774). Encounter between the ironclads “Merrimac” and “Monitor” in the James River, March 9. Earl of Elgin governor-general of India, March 12. Japanese embassy received by Napoleon III., April 13. France declares war on Mexico, April 16. Surrender of New Orleans to the Fédérais, April 24. Japanese embassy reaches England, April 30. Opening of International Exhibition, South Kensington, May 1 (closed, November 1). Battle of Williamsburg, May 5. Ningpo taken by the allies, May 10. Death of Buckle, May 29 (born 1822). Battles on the Chickahominy (before Richmond), June 25 to July 1. Treaty of commerce between Great Britain and Belgium, July 23. Death of ex-president Van Buren, July 24 (born, 1782). The “Alabama” Confederate corvette sails from Liverpool, July 29. Garibaldi occupies Catania, August 20. Garibaldi defeated, wounded, and captured at Aspromoute, August 29. Second battle of Bull Run, August 30. Confederates invade Maryland, September 5, 6. Confederates defeated at South Mountain, September 14; and at Antietam, September 17. Suspension of Habeas Corpus Act in United States, September 24. Abdication of Otho, king of Greece, October 24. Death of Uhland, November 13 (born, 1787). Battle of Fredericksburg, December 13. Cotton Famine in Lancashire at its height in December. Herbert Spencer’s First Principles published. Helmholtz’s Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen.

1863. President Lincoln proclaims the Confederate States to be in rebellion, and declares their slaves free, January 1. Western Virginia admitted a State of the Union, January 1. Death of Horace Veraet, January 17 (born, 1789). Treaty of commerce between France and Italy, January 17. Ismael Pasha viceroy of Egypt, January 18. Insurrection in Poland, under Langiewicz, January 22; he is defeated, March 19. Rebellion of Maoris in New Zealand, January; they are defeated, July 17 and November 20. Marriage of the Prince of Wales with the Princess Alexandra of Denmark at Windsor, March 10. Prince William George of Denmark elected king of Greece, March 18. Puebla taken by the French, March 31. Death of Sir G. Comewall Lewis, April 13 (born, 1806). Battle of Chancellorsville, General “Stonewall” Jackson mortally wounded, May 2 (died, May 9). Puebla, Mexico, entered by French under General Forey, May 17. Vicksburg attacked by General Grant, May 19; surrendered, July 4. Capture of Herat by Mahomed Khan, May 26. Death of Dost Mahomed, June 9. General Forey enters the city of Mexico, June 10. Battles of Gettysburg, July 1-3. Death of Mulready, July 7 (born, 1786). Surrender of Port Hudson to the Fédérais, July 8. Empire of

Mexico proclaimed; Maximilian, archduke of Austria, elected emperor, July 10. Abolition of the Scheldt dues, July 16. Chattanooga occupied by Fédérais, September 10. Battle of Chicamauga, September 19, 20. Death of Jacob Grimm, September 20 (born, 1785). DeathofArchbishopWhately,October8 (born, 1787). Prince of Sonderburg-Glucksburg proclaimed king of Denmark as Christian IX., November 16. Prince Frederick of Augustenburg claims the duchies of Schlesλvig-Holstein, November 18. Battle of Chattanooga, defeat of Confederates, November 24. First Fenian Convention meets at Chicago, November 25. Death of Thackeray, December 24 (bora, 1811). Colenso’s Pentateuch critically examined published. George Eliot’s Romola. Renan’s Vie de Jésus.

1864. Sir John Lawrence viceroy of India, January 12. German ultimatum presented to Denmark, January 16. Austro-Pras-sian army enters Holstein, January 21. Evacuation of the Dannewerk, Febraary 6. Visit of Garibaldi to England, April 3-27. Seizure of Chincha Islands by Spain, April 14. Capture of Düppel by Prussians, April 18. Russian conquest of Circassia completed. Death of Meyerbeer, May 2 (born, 1794). Suspension of hostilities in Schleswig, May 12. Death of N. Hawthorne, May 19 (born, 1804). Cession of Ionian Islands to Greece, May 28. Aιτival of the emperor Maximilian in Mexico, May 29. The “Alabama” sunk by the “Kearsage,” off Cherbourg, June 19. Hostilities resumed in Denmark, June 26. Nanking taken from the Taepings, July 19; end of the rebellion. Repeal of Fugitive Slave Law, U.S., June 23. Belfast Orange riots, August 8-16. Occupation of Atlanta by Fédérais, September 2. Evacuation of Rome by the French in two years agreed to, September 15. Death of W. S. Landor, September 17 (bora, 1775). Treaty of peace between Denmark, Prussia, and Austria signed at Vienna, October 30 (ratified, November 16). Nevada admitted a State of the Union, October 31. Death of David Roberts, R.A., November 25 (born, 1796). Savannah occupied by General Sherman, December 21. Geneva Convention for relief of the wounded in war originated. Dynamite introduced by Nobel Tennyson’s Enoch Arden published. Newman’s Apologia pro Vita sua. Taine’s Histoire de la Littérature Anglaise.

1865. Death of Proudhon, January 19 (born, 1809). Treaty of peace between Spain and Peru, January 25. Occupation of Charleston by General Gillmour, February 17. The first telegram received in London direct from Kurrachee, March 1. President Lincoln enters upon second term of office, March 4. Death of Cobden,. April 2 (bora, 1804). Richmond entered by General Grant, April 3. Surrender of General Lee, April 9. Assassination of President Lincoln, April 14; vice-president Andrew Johnson succeeds him, April 15. Paraguay declares war on Argentine Confederation, April 16. Alliance between Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentine Confederation, May 1. Capture of President Davis, May 10, and end of American war. Italian seat of government transferred to Florence, May 11. Death of Isaac Taylor, June 28 (bora, 1786). Death of Professor Aytoun, August 4 (born, 1813). Death of Sir William J. Hooker, August 12 (born, 1785). Convention of Gastein, respecting Danish duchies, August 14. Navigation treaty between Great Britain and Prussia, August 16. Rinderpest in England, July-October. Arrest of Fenian leaders in Ireland, September 15. Negro riots at Morant Bay, Jamaica, October 11. Death of Lord Palmerston, October 18 (bora, 1784). Earl Russell first lord of the treasury, October 19. Leopold II. king of the Belgians, December 10. Commercial treaty between Great Britain and Austria, December 16. Slaveιy abolished in United States, December 18. Death of Frederika Bremer, December 31 (born, 1802). Lecky’s Rise and Influence of Rationalism published. Pusey’s Eirenicon.

1866. Suspension of Habeas Corpus Act in Ireland, February 17. Death of Dr Whewell, March 6 (born, 1794). Death of Keble, March 29 (born, 1792). Alliance between Prussia and Italy signed, March 2 7. Bombardment of· Valparaiso by Spanish fleet, March 31. Civil Rights Bill passed by U.S. Congress, April 12. Prince Charles of Hohenzollem elected hospodar of Roumania, April 15. Suspension of Bank of England Charter Act, May 11. Fenian raids into Canada, May 31 and June 7. Suspension of Habeas Corpus Act in Canada, June 8. Prussia withdraws from Germanic Confederation, June 14. Prussians enter Saxony and Hanover, June 15. Austria declares war, June 17; Prussia, June 18; Italy, June 20. Italians defeated at Custozza, June 24. Resignation of the Russell ministry, June 26. Surrender of Hanoverian aιmy, June 29. Prussians defeat Austrians at Sadowa (Königgrätz), July 3. Austria cedes Venetia to France, July 5. The Derby ministry enter office, July 6. Occupation of Frankfort by Prussians, July 16. Battle of Lissa, July 20. Preliminaries of peace signed at Nikolsburg, July 26. Insurrection in Crete, August. Treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia signed at Prague, August 23. Treaty of peace between Austria and Italy signed at Vienna, October 3. North German Confederation formed, August-October. Venetia united to Italy, November 4. Rome evacuated ly the French, December 3-11, Ecce Homo published. Swinburne’s Poems and Ballads.

1867. Death of VictorCousin, January 14 (born, 1792). Schleswig Holstein incorporated with Prussia, January 24. Hungarian con stitution restored, February 7. First passage of a ship through the Suez Canal, February 17. Fenian agitation in Ireland, February-March. Nebraska admitted a State of the Union, March 1. Cession of Russian America to United States, March 13. Evacuation of Mexico by the French, March 16. International Exhibition at Paris opened, April 1 (closed, November 3). Dominion of Canada constituted, March 29. Coronation of the emperor and empress of Austria as king and queen of Hungary, at Pesth, June 8. The Livingstone search expedition sails from England, June 9. The emperor Maximilian of Mexico shot at Queretaro, June 19. North German constitution promulgated, June 25. Sultan visits Paris, June 30; London, July 12. New Reform Bill passed for England, August 15 (for Scotland and Ireland, July 13, 1868). Death of Faraday, August 25 (born, 1791). Prussian garrison withdrawn from Luxembourg, September 8. First detachment?of British expedition against Abyssinia leaves’ Aden, September 28. Juarez re-elected president of Mexico, October. Garibaldi occupies Monte Rotondo, and threatens Rome, October 26. French troops enter Rome. October 30. Italian troops pass Roman frontier, October 30. Garibaldi defeated at Montana, November 3; arrested, November 4. Annexation of Cochin China to France. Chaucer Society established in London. First vol. of Freeman’s Norman Conquest published (completed, 1876).

1868. Death of Brewster, February 10 (born, 1781.) Occupation of Asuncion, Paraguay, by the allies, February 21. Resignation of Lord Derby, February 25. Impeachment of President Johnson, February 25. Magdala bombarded and taken by Sir R. Napier, King Theodore killed, April 13. Death öf Marshal Narvaez, April 23 (born, 1800). Death of Lord Brougham, May 7 (born, 1779). Samarcand occupied by Russiaus, May 14. Death of expresident Buchanan, June 1 (born, 1791). Prince Michael III. of Servia assassinated at Belgrade, June 10; Milan Obrenovich proclaimed prince, July 2. Humaita evacuated by Paraguayans, June 25. Cabul recovered by Shere Ali, August 14. Insurrection in Spain, September 18. Death of Dean Milman, September 24 (born, 1791.) Battle of Alcolea, September 28. Queen Isabella leaves Spain, September 30. General Prim received at Madrid, October 7. Death of Rossini, November 13 (bora, 1792). Resignation of Disraeli, December 2. The Gladstone ministry in office, December 9. Paraguayan army defeated and destroyed at Villeta, December 11. Lord Mayo, governor-general of India, December 20.

1869. Death of Lamartine, Febmary 28 (born, 1792). General Grant president of United States, March 4. Hudson’s Bay Territory ceded to the crown, April 9. Marshal Serrano regent of Spain, June 18. Irish Church Disestablishment Act passed, July 26. Valencia seized by Republicans, October 11; stormed by Government troops, October 16. Death of Sainte-Beuve, Oct 13 (born, 1804). Death of the earl of Derby, October 23 (born, 1799). Formal opening of the Suez Canal, November 17. Pacific Railway completed. Lecky’s European Morals published.

1870. President Lopez, of Paraguay, defeated and killed at battle of Aquidaban, March 1. Death of Charles Dickens, June 9 (born, 1812). Abdication of Isabella II. of Spain, June 25. Spanish crown offered to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollem-Sigmaringen, July 4. Proposal denounced by French Government, July 6. Infallibility of the Pope voted by the Vatican Council, July 18. France declares war against Prussia, July 19. Abrogation of the concordat with Austria, July 30. The Irish Land Act passed, August 1. Attack on Saarbrück by the French, August 2. French defeated at Woerth and Speichern, August 6. Elementary Education Act for England and Wales passed, August 9. Fall of the Ollivier ministry in France, August 9; Count Palikao first minister. Defeat of French at Gravelotte, August 18. Battle of Sedan, September 1. Surrender of Napoleon to the king of Prussia; capitulation of the French army, September 2. Revolution at Paris. Republic proclaimed, September 4. Flight of the empress. Italian troops enter Papal territory, September 17. Paris invested by Germans, September 19. Rome occupied by Italian troops, September 20. Capitulation of Strasburg, September 28. Versailles the headquarters of king of Prussia, October 5. Rome and the Papal States united to the kingdom of Italy, October 9. Orleans taken by General Von der Tann, October 11. Death of General R. E. Lee, October 13 (bora, 1808). Fall of Metz, October 28. Communist insurrection at Paris, October 31. Russia throws off obligations of treaty of 1856 respecting neutrality of the Black Sea, October 31. Duke of Aosta elected king of Spain, November 16. Bavaria enters North German confederation, November 23. Death of Alexandre Dumas, December 5 (boro, 1803). German empire declared, December 10. Tours surrendered, but not occupied by Germans, December 21. Marshal Prim shot at Madrid, December 28’; died, 30. Mont Cenis tunnel completed.

1871. Le Mans occupied by Germans, January 12. King William of Prussia proclaimed emperor of Germany at Versailles, January 18. Battle of St Quentin, January 19. Bombardment of St. Denis begun, January 21. Capitulation of Paris, January 28. The army of Bourbaki interned in Switzerland, February 1. National Assembly meets at Bordeaux, February 12. Μ. Thiers chief of the executive, February 17. Preliminaries of peace signed, February 26; ratified, March 1. Paris entered by Germans, March 1; evacuated, March 3. Communist revolution at Paris, March 18. National Assembly meets at Versailles, March 20. The commune proclaimed at Paris, March 28. Capture of Herat, by Yakoob Khan, son of Shere Ali, May 6. Treaty of Washington, May 8 (ratified, May 24). Definitive treaty of peace between France and Germany, May 10 (ratified, May 21). Trial of the Tichborne case in Common Pleas begins, May 11; ends, March 6, 1872. Death of Sir John Herschel, May 11 (born, 1792). Death of Auber, May 13 (born, 1784). Paris entered by Versailles army, May 22, The Tuileries, Louvre, Palais Royal, &c., burnt by communists, May 24. Archbishop of Paris shot, May 24. End of insurrection, May 28. Seat of Italian Government transferred to Rome, July 1. Μ. Thiers appointed president of the republic, August 31. Purchase system in British army abolished by Royal Warrant, July 20. Death of Paul de Kock, August (born, 1794). Formal opening of Mont Cenis tunnel, September 17. Slave emancipation bill passed by senate of Brazil, September 27. Chicago burnt, October 8-10. Alabama Arbitration Commission meets at Geneva, December 18 (award signed, September 14, 1872). British Columbia incorporated with Dominion of Canada. Darwin’s Descent of Man published. George Eliot’s Mlddlemarch.

1872. Assassination of Lord Mayo in the Andaman Islands, February 8 (born, 1822). Lord Northbrook viceroy of India, Febmary 22. Death of Giuseppe Mazzini, March 10, (born, 1805). Dutch possessions on the Gold Coast transferred to Great Britain, April 6. Carlist insurrection in Spain, April 22. Great eruption of Vesuvius, April 24-May 1. Expulsion of Jesuits by German Reichstag, June 19. Death of President Juarez, July 18 (born, 1809). The Ballot Act passed by English parliament, July 18. Extradition treaty between Great Britain and Belgium concluded, July 31. Japanese embassy arrives in England, August 17. Riots at Belfast, August 16-22. Death of Dr Merle d’Aubigné, October 19 (born, 1794). Public gaming tables, Baden-Baden, closed, October 31. Commercial treaty between France and England, November 5. Island of San Juan evacuated by British troops, according to award of German Emperor, November 22.

1873. Death of Napoleon III. at Chiselhurst, January 9. Death of Lord Lytton, January 18 (born, 1805). Abdication of King Amadeus of Spain, Febmary 11. Republican government adopted by the Cortes. General Grant president of United States (second term), March 4. International exhibition at Vienna opened, May 1. Death of Dr Livingstone, in Central Africa, May 4, (born 1813). Death of John Stuart Mill, May 8 (born, 1806). Resignation of Μ. Thiers; Marshal Macmahon president of the French Republic, May 24. Autonomy of Egypt conceded by the sultan, June 8. Khiva taken by Russians, June 10. The Ashantees defeated by the English at Elmina, June 13. Visit of the shah of Persia to England, June 18-July 5. First reception of foreign ministers by emperor of China at Pekin, June 29. Communist rising in Spain, July 10. Insurrection at Cartagena, July 14. Don Carlos re-enters Spain, July 16. New treaty of commerce between England and France signed, July 23. Payment of Alabama indemnity by England, September 9. Evacuation of French territory by Germans, September 16. Death of Sir Edwin Landseer, October 1 (born, 1802). Trial of Marshal Bazaine begins, October 6; he is sentenced, December 10. Encyclical letter of Pius IX. against “Old Catholics,” November 21. Dutch expedition lands at Atchin, November 28. Death of Agassiz, December 15 (boro, 1807). Supreme Court of Judicature Act passed.

1874. Coup d’État at Madrid by General Pavia, January 3. Marshal Serrano head of the new Government. Surrender of Cartagena, January 12. Capture of Coomassie by Sir G. Wolseley, Febmary 4. Death of Strauss, Febmary 8, (born 1808). Resignation of the Gladstone ministry, Febmary 17. Mr Disraeli prime minister, Febmary 18. The Tichbome claimant, after 188 days trial, is found guilty of perjury, February 28. Death of Charles Sumner, March 11 (born, 1811). Visit of the czar to England, May 13-21. Death of Van de Weyer, May 23, (born 1802). Marshal Concha killed in engagement with Carlists near Estella, June 28. Spain declared in a state of siege, July 19. Escape of Marshal Bazaine from prison, August 9. Death of Guizot, September 12 (born, 1787). Cession of Fiji Islands to England, September 30. Death of Tischendorf, December 7 (born, 1815). Prince Alphonso proclaimed king of Spain, December 30. Transit of Venus, December 9. Toughened glass invented. Supernatural Religion published.

1875. Deposition of the Gaikwar of Baroda, April 23 The Arctic expedition (“Alert” and “Discovery”) sails from Portsmouth, May 29. Great floods at Toulouse, June 24; and at Buda, June 26. Citadel of Seo d’Urgel, last Carlist fortress in Catalonia, surrendered, August 27. Occupation of Khokand by Russians, September 16. Prince of Wales sets out on visit to India, October 11. Purchase by England of Khedive’s shares in Suez Canal announced, November 26. Tennyson’s Queen Mary published.