Costume

COSTUME

COSTUME, as defined for the present inquiry, is limited to personal attire, but with the exclusion of armour, which has been dealt with under a separate heading.

Greek Costume,

The inquiry begins with Greek costume, as to which, so far as it consists of dress, the general remark may be made that its history is for the most part free from what is known as the changes of fashion, for this reason that the Greeks did not attempt to reconcile the two opposite principles of covering and at the same time displaying the figure, that is to say, of cutting the dress to fit the body. There are changes which will be noted between the dress worn after 450 b.c. and that of an earlier date, when the material was heavier and the figure more closely enveloped, suggesting a difference of climate in these different periods.

Female Dress.— The chief and indispensable article of female dress was the chiton, consisting of one piece of material sewed together in the form of a sack open at top and 'bottom, in height reaching from the neck to the feet of the wearer, and in width equal to that of the extended arms. Within this stands the figure, and first it is girt round under the breasts, to keep it from falling, by a girdle (zoster).

Next, the upper edges are fastened together on the top of the shoulders by a brooch (fibula), and the arms are either left bare, pressing down into folds at each side the masses of material, or these masses may be gathered round each arm, and fastened down the outside with buttons and loops so as to form sleeves (chiton cheiridotos). The chiton could be left open down one side for convenience in dancing, and was then called chiton schistos. To secure greater warmth on the breast and shoulders the chiton was made long enough to be doubled back from the top, and this part reaching to the waist was called the diploïs or diplóidion. It could be also made of a separate piece. Underneath the chiton was worn a band of cloth (t<εnia) to support the breasts, and in addition to this a cord was sometimes crossed round the breasts outside the chiton to assist either in supporting them or in bringing out their form. Round the loins was worn, perhaps not always, either a short petticoat of thick woollen stuff or a sort of bathing drawers, ωα λoυτpις, such as acrobats wore. So far we have mentioned all the dress that was necessary for indoor wear, which, also, since it had to be got into, was called εvδυ∕zα, as opposed to other parts of dress, which were thrown round the body, and were called πt,pιβ ∖ riiχa,τa. To the latter class belongs the next article of importance in female dress, the himation, a garment worn also by men. While the chiton was generally made of linen, of which there was a variety of fabrics (e.g., those of Amorgos, Tarentum, Sicily, Crete, and Phrygia), or of cannabis (made from hemp), or of byssos (flax from India and Egypt chiefly), or of silk (serica), the himatioιrconsisted of woollen stuff, and was worn like a plaid. It was first thrown over the left shoulder, leaving the short end to hang dowmin front; the long end was then gathered round the back with the right hand, brought under the right arm, and across the body in front, and finally held in this position by being thrown over the left fore arm. Or instead of being passed under the right arm it could be brought over the right shoulder so as to envelop the right arm, then carried closely round the neck, and finally thrown over the left shoulder with an end hanging down behind ; or again, it could be still further drawn up over the back of the head to form a hood. As regards colours, it will be found, when we have taken away black for the use of mourners (τα δ∈ μiλava ιp,aτιa 0pφavιva iκaλow), that the others were employed in a great variety of combinations. Au important point was always to have a deep border round the foot of the chiton, either of some uniform colour which suggests solidity and heaviness, so as to weigh down the dress, or of some pattern which would suggest strength to prevent the dress from being torn when striding. Strong contrasts of colours were used, such as a white chiton with a pink himation, or a white chiton with a broad blue border round the foot. Besides embroidery, another kind of ornament consisted of designs beaten out in thin gold and stitched on the dress. Great numbers of those have been found in tombs where the dress itself has entirely perished. Greek vases and sculptures represent Amazons and Persians wearing trousers (anaxyrides), but this article of dress did not come into use among the Greeks themselves.

While the chiton and himation, as above described, continued to be the standard dress from about 450 b.c. onwards, it is the rule to find in figures of an earlier date the himation worn as in fig. 3, where it has more of the appearance of a chiton, having like it a diploïdion, and enveloping the greater part of the figure, so that the chiton proper appears as distinctly an under garment. It is a himation of this kind that the archaic figure of Athena wears, and since we know that the name for this garment of hers was peplos, it would perhaps be more correct to use this word instead of himation for the upper garment of the earlier period. Among other reasons also for this is the negative evidence that the word peplos does not occur in the inventory of female dresses on an inscription from Athens in the British Museum, in which the latest date given is 335 b.c. Pollux, it is true (vii. 47), cites it in his list of names for dresses worn by women.

Returning to the dress after 450 b.c., we find that the chiton could be tucked up under the girdle till the skirt reached only to the knees, as in the figures of Artemis. A short linen chiton, reaching half way down the thighs, was called kypassis. The diploïdion, when once made of a separate piece, could have the form of a sleeveless jacket reaching nearly to the knees. A diploïdion worn only in front was called a hemidiplóidion. A chiton worn to leave one breast bare was called heteromaschalos; worn without a girdle, as by priests and old women, it was orthostadios, or perhaps zoma. The ampechonion appears to have been a small shawl. The kimbarikon was a transparent under-chiton. The following names of dresses are still undetermined— kandys or kandyke, epomis, pharos, phaenole, xystis (xyston), heanos, mandye, ephestrides, and amphiestrides.

As regards the covering of the head, that was perhaps most generally accomplished by drawing the himation up over the back of the head like a hood; or, instead of this, a separate piece of cloth was made to perform this service, the end of it falling under the himation. This was the kalyptra, or veil. A cap merely intended to cover in the hair and hold it together was called kekryphalos. When hats were worn they were of circular shape, and either of some stiff material, as the Thessalian or Boeotian hat (Θeσσαλιs κvvrfi), observed in terra-cottas from Tanagra in Baeotia and in Pompeian paintings, or of pliant material which could be bent down at the sides like the petasus worn by Atalanta. Similar to this seems to have been the kausia or Macedonian hat. The kyrbasia, or kidaris, was a high pointed hat of Persian origin, as was also the tiara, which served the double purpose of an ornament and a covering for the head. When the object was only to hold up the hair from the neck, the sphendone was used, which, as its name implies, was in the form of a sling; but in this case it was called more particularly opistho-sphendone, as a distinction from the sphendone when worn in the front of the head. The head ornaments include the diadema, a narrow band bound round the hair a little way back frona the brow and temples, and fastened in the knot of the hair behind; the ampyx, a variety of the diadem; the Stephane, a crown worn over the forehead, its highest point being in the centre, and narrowing at each side into a thin band which is tied at the back of the head. Different from this is the Stephanos, which is a crown of the same breadth and design all round, as on the coins of Argos with the head of Hera, who is expressly said by Pausanias to wear a stephanos. This word is also employed for crowns of laurel, olive, or other plant, when the form would be the same all round the head. Crowns made of wicker-work (poloi kalathoi) were also worn (see Gerhard, Antike Bildwerke, pls. 303-305). When the hair, as was most usual, was gathered back from the temples and fastened in a knot behind, hair pins were required, and these were mostly of bone or ivory, mounted with gold or plain. So also when the hair was tied in a large knot above the forehead, as in the case of Artemis, or of Apollo as leader of the Muses. The early Athenians wore their hair so, with a pin representing a grasshopper (tctti£), in allusion totheir claim of having originally sprung from the soil (Thucyd. i. 6). Whether this knot was the krobylos is not determined. In archaic figures the hair is most frequently arranged over the brow and temples in parallel rows of small curls which must have been kept in their places by artificial means, probably by small spirals of gold wire, such as are found in early Etruscan tombs lying near the head of the skeleton. Ear-rings (cVωτια, ∈λλo∕3ιa, ∈λικτηpeς) of gold, silver, or bronze plaited with gold, and frequently ornamented with pearls, precious stones, or enamel, were worn attached to the lobes of the ear. For necklaces (opμ∙oι), bracelets (õ≠eiç), brooches (ττepovαι), and finger-rings (δακτυ z λιoι or σ≠paγιδ∈ς) the same variety and preciousness of material was employed. The gold used was always very thin; the intrinsic value, for example, of tho famous Milo necklace in the British Museum is very slight, while the extraordinary amount of skilled work manship in it would represent a very high value in labour. This is the rule in the best period of Greek art, that the jewellery is of value according to its workmanship; but in later times preciousness of material determined the value. In the earliest jewellery, amber is conspicuous, alternating with pale gold or electrum. For the feet .-the sandal (σ⅛δαλov, τr∈διλa) was the usual wear; in exceptional cases, as for the bath, shoes, and for hunting, high boots were worn. The hunting boot was laced up the front, and reached to the calves. Gloves (cheirides) were worn by the Persians, but apparently never by the Greeks unless to protect the hands when working (Odyssey, xxiv. 230).

Male dress.— Fig. 4 represents the dress of a Greek citizen, such as it appears, for example, on the frieze of the Parthenon. It consists of nothing more than a himation such as that already described for women, but worn differently; and from the simplicity of this attire it may be seen in how ridiculously awkward a position Blepyrus was placed by his wife’s having carried off his himation and shoes (Aristoph., Eccles., 310 sqq.) But underneath the himation was sometimes also a short linen chiton similar to that worn by armed men under their armour; and with this chiton on, the himation could be laid aside on occasion. Workmen of all kinds wore only a short chiton girt round the waist, and let loose from the right shoulder to leave the arm free. In this case the material varied according to the necessary exposure to cold,—a fisherman, for example, having a chiton of hide, as had also slaves; but the slave’s chiton was more like a jacket with sleeves reaching to the wrist, and corresponding to the σvσ∈ιpα as defined by Pollux (vii. 70), who mentions further the βaiτη and σiσvρa as garments of hide worn by peasants in the form of mantles. The same class of persons wore at other times the κaτωvdκη, a mantle of woollen stuff with border of sheepskin. But among the citizen class where the himation, as in fig. 4, was the proper dress for a man of mature years, younger men and youths appear to have worn it only as a sort of undress to wrap round them when heated in the palaestra or at the bath. In public appearances they wore a linen chiton girt at the waist, and reaching half-way down the thighs, and on their shoulders a purple chlamys of woollen stuff fastened with a brooch on the right shoulder as in fig. 5. The chlamys was properly a military mantle, and is said to have been introduced from Macedonia, as was also the kausia, worn along with it by Athenian youth, a round hat with flat pliant brim resembling the petasus of Hermes. In winter a mantle of thick stuff, the chl<xna, was sometimes worn, while in summer the himation could be replaced by the thin linen chlanis. For official or priestly dignity an ungirt chiton reaching to the feet (chiton orthostadios) was worn. Sandals, shoes, or high boots were used as occasion required. The citizen of mature years wore no covering for the head. That was confined to youth, work men, and slaves. His hair was cut short on the top, and lay on the head without parting. At the sides and round the neck it was allowed to fall a short way. His beard was of moderate size. Before Alexander’s time only the Spartans shaved the upper lip, but after that shaving became more general. Except a finger ring, a brooch to fasten the chlamys, or on occasion a wreath, the citizens usually wore no ornaments. While with this class there was no limit to the display of limbs, it was on the other hand the object of the slave’s dress to conceal the limbs as far as possible, and for this purpose he wore, besides the jacket with long sleeves already noticed, closefitting hose reaching to the ankles. For his head he had, like fishermen and other workmen, a pointed cap (pilos).

The constancy to one fashion observed in the dress of the Greeks is not remarkable when we remember that the fashions with which they were familiar in other nations must have shared in their minds the association with servitude and lower civilization which attached to these nations. Yet if it is true that they entered Greece from the north, and had previously permanent settlements in that region, it is curious that they did not retain in their costume some evidence of the colder climate in which they had lived, unless, indeed, the hose relegated to slaves furnish such evidence. This same difficulty occurs with regard to the Etruscans, whose dress is peculiarly the natural one for an Oriental climate; and it is the more remarkable in their case since the cold of the north of Italy would, it might be supposed, have induced them to retain part of the dress peculiar to the north, had they, as is argued, been previously settled there.

Etruscan.

The female dress of the Etruscans consisted, like that of the Greeks, jn (1) a chiton poderes, reaching to the feet, and girt at the waist; (2) a himation, worn in the fashion of a shawl, as occasionally on early Greek figures, or as a plaid; (3) a hat (tutulus) rising to a high point; and (4) pointed shoes. The chiton, with diploïdion on the breast, which is so conspicuous in Greek art after 450 B.c., does not so far as we know occur in pure Etruscan representations of dress; nor is the himation found wrapped round the body as in Greek figures of this period (see fig. 2 above). It seems to have been much narrower as used by the Etruscans, and more like a shepherd’s plaid. Instead of a himation a close-fitting jacket of thick stuff is worn by an archaic Etruscan female figure in the British Museum, fig. 6. The pointed hat (tutulus) re semblés the Persian kidaris, and from its Oriental appearance has been cited as a survival of part of the national dress from the time when the Etruscans inhabited Lydia. On a celebrated terracotta sarcophagus in the British Museum the female figure reclining on the lid wears a Greek chiton of a thin white material, with short sleeves fastened on the outside of the arm, by means of buttons and loops; a himation of dark purple thick stuff is wrapped round her hips and legs; on her feet are sandals, consisting of a sole apparently of leather, and attached to the foot and leg with leather straps; under the straps are thin socks which do not cover the toes; she wears a necklace of heavy pendants; her ears are pierced for ear-rings; her hair is partly gathered together with a ribbon at the roots behind, and partly hangs in long tresses before and behind; a flat diadem is bound round her head a little way back from the brow and temples. Purple, pale green, and white, richly embroidered, are favourite colours in the dresses represented on the painted tombs.

No less essentially identical with the Greek are the representations of male dress on works of Etruscan art dating from the period of national independence. The chief article of male dress was called the tebenna. On the other hand there are the statements of ancient writers that the toga prcetexta, with its purple border (τrepιπ6pφvpo<i τηβevva), as worn by Roman magistrates and priests, had been derived from the Etruscans (Pliny, N. IL, ix. 63, prcetextae apud Etruscos originem invenere) ; and the Roman toga, though placed round the body much in the same way as the Greek himation, yet differed from it in shape so far that, while the latter was an oblong, the toga was a circular piece of stuff (toga rotunda), of which a large segment was doubled back so as to reduce the whole to little more than a semicircle. By this means a greater profusion of folds was obtained, and this at first sight is the characteristic difference between the Greek and Roman male dress. But though the toga, worn as it was by the Romans, does not occur in early Etruscan art, there is sufficient likeness between it and the tebenna which does occur, to justify the statement of the Roman toga being derived from the earlier costume of the Etruscans. It would have been equally, perhaps more, correct to have traced it to a Greek origin, the tebenna having been worn in Argos and Arcadia (Foilux, vii. 61) apparently from early times. Under the tebenna, or toga, which was necessary only for public appearance, the Etruscans wore a short tunic similar to the Greek chiton. For workmen and others of inferior occupation this appears to have been the only dress. Youths, when engaged in horsemanship and other exercises, wore a chlamys round the shoulders, just as the youths similarly engaged on the Parthenon frieze. But the Etruscan chlamys, again, is semicircular in cut, and was fastened on the breast by buttons and a loop, or tied in a knot, whereas the Greek chlamys was oblong and fastened on the shoulder by a brooch (péroné). On public or festal occasions the Etruscan noble wore, besides the tebenna, a bulla, or necklace of bullae, and a wreath, corona Etrusca. The bulla was a circular gold locket containing a charm of some kind against evil. On the later sarcophagi the male figures wear not only a wreath, or corona proper, but also a garland of flowers hung round the neck. The Roman manner of wearing occasionally the toga, with the end thrown over the left shoulder, and wrapped round the waist (Gabino cinctu), was derived, it was said, from Etruria. The upper fold of the tebenna could be drawn up over the head if needed. As a separate male head-dress there was the galerus, a hat of leather, said to have been worn by the Lucumos in early times, or the apex, a pointed hat corresponding to the tutulus worn by females. The fashion of shoes worn by Roman senators was said to have been derived from Etruria. Etruscan shoes were prized both in Greece and in Rome.

Roman. Male dress. — Fig. 7 represents the full Roman dress of tunica and toga, the former being visible only on the right shoulder and breast. The toga as here worn is, when spread out, a nearly elliptical piece of cloth, its greatest length being three times the height of the person who wears it, and its greatest breadth equal to at least twice the height of the wearer. It is, therefore, correctly called toga rotunda. The first step is to double back a segment of this ellipse so that it may nearly resemble a semicircle, and thus also justify the other definition of the toga as semicircular (τr∈pι∕30λαιov ημικvκλιov). With the long straight edge so obtained, and with the smaller segment on the outside, the toga is thrown over the left shoulder, one end hanging down in front and over the left arm to the ground. The long end is then gathered round the back with the right hand, brought under the right arm and across the body, and finally thrown again over the left shoulder so that it may hang down the back some distance. The segment which was doubled back may be drawn over the back of the head like a veil, or, more generally, is drawn up as far as the neck and round the right shoulder, from which it forms a sweep in front of the body resembling the curve of a bay, whence it is called the sinus. The end, at first allowed to fall down in front, is drawn up a little and hangs over the edge, which passes round the waist in front. This is perhaps what is called the umbo. Instead of the loose end of the toga being thrown over the left shoulder, as here, it was sometimes carried round under the left arm and tied tightly round the waist. This was called the cinctus Gabinus, and from having been once, it appears, a common fashion of citizens when engaged in war, was retained as the official form in certain ceremonies arising out of war, as at the opening of the temple of Janus. The toga was of a thin woollen stuff, and as to colour was always white for the ordinary burgesses. A white toga with a purple border (toga praetexta) was worn as a distinction by those holding public offices, entitling them to the curule chair and the fasces, by the great colleges of priests (Flamen Dialis, Pontifices, Augurs, Septemviri, Quindecimviri, and Arvales), but in this case only during the act of performing their offices, and by boys up to their sixteenth year, when they assumed the toga virilis. The tribunes and aediles of the plebs and the quaestors were denied the right to the praetexta. A purple toga (toga purpurea) was always the mark of high office, and as such was worn by the magistrates of republican times, though not except on public occasions, as well as by the emperors. The purple toga was sometimes embroidered with gold (toga picta), and it could only bo worn with an under-dress of the same colour (tunica palmata). The praetexta, on the other hand, with its purple border, could only be worn along with a white tunic under it with a purple stripe (clavus). The praetexta was laid aside when the wearer retired from office, but the clavus, or purple stripe on the tunic, was retained, and became in consequence the distinguishing mark of the senatorial order.

The tunica corresponds exactly to the Greek chiton, reaching, like it, half way down the thigh, and being girt round the waist, but with the apparent difference that the Greeks rarely brought the stuff pressed down by both arms up round the arms so as to form sleeves down to the elbows, as did the Romans frequently. Further, it was a custom of the Romans to wear two tunics,—Augustus is said to have worn four. The one next the skin was known as the subucula, and the other as the supparus, or intusium. Only the latter had sleeves (tunica manicata), and over it passed the girdle (cinctura). The tunic of the senatorial order had, as has been said, a broad purple stripe, latus clavus, woven into it down the front, whence it was called tunica laticlavia. That of the knightly order had two narrow purple stripes and was known as tunica angusticlavia. Tunics with two narrow stripes, one passing over each shoulder before and behind, are seen on Roman bronze statuettes of boys represented acting as Camilli at sacrifices. The tunic was usually of linen, just as the toga was of wool, and the national colour for ordinary purposes was white. Poor persons were doubtless content with the natural colour of the linen or wool, and when in mourning the higher classes wore a dark-coloured toga (toga palla or sordida), though this was not always the rule.

More convenient than the toga, but retaining a general likeness to it, was the pallium, an adaptation of the Greek himation. Among other substitutes for the toga were (1) the trabea, which formed the official dress of the Augurs and Salii, resembling in shape the Etruscan tebenna, and being purple in colour; (2) paludamentum, an adaptation of the Greek chlamys, worn by the emperor as head of the army, purple in colour, though white was also allowed; (3) sagum, or sagulum, similar to the last, but worn only by soldiers; it differs from the chlamys in having the corners rounded, off so as to be nearly circular when folded out; (4) pcenιda, worn in rainy weather to cover the dress, and made of thick flaxen material (gausape) or leather, with or without a hood, and formed of an elliptical piece of stuff with a round hole in the middle for the head to pass through; (5) lacerna, a sort of chlamys of expensive material and colours, worn in the theatre or circus in presence of the emperor. As regards covering for the head, there was the hood of the paenula in rough weather {cucullus or cucullio), or the toga could be drawn up over the head, or there was a separate article—the ricinium — in the form of a veil, as worn by the Arval Brothers. Workmen and others wore hats or caps corresponding to the Greek pilus (pileus) and petasus. As an ornament for the head the diadem was only occasionally used till the time of Constantine. It was declined by Caesar. After Caracalla the most usual mark of an emperor was a crown of radii. The heavy garments worn out of doors, or officially, were replaced at dinner by vestes coenatorioe of thin material. Trousers (braccae) were not worn till after the Parthian and Celtic wars, and even then only by soldiers who were exposed to northern climates. The legs were protected by flat bands (fasciae) laced round them up to the knees. On the feet senators wore shoes of red leather (mulleus, calceus senatorius), ornamented with knobs of ivory or brass, and having a high sole. The patrician order wore shoes of black leather (calceus patricius), ornamented with an ivory crescent, and hence called lunula. For unofficial occasions, and for persons not belonging to these orders, there were the sandals (soleae). The compagus, said to have been introduced from Etruria by Romulus, appears to have been a high hunting boot laced up the front, while the caliga appears to have been a sort of shoe. For personal ornament finger-rings of great variety in the material and design were worn, sometimes to the extent of one or more on each finger, many persons possessing small cabinets of them. But at first the Roman citizen wore only an iron signet ring. A gold ring was introduced for persons sent on foreign embassies, but by degrees the√tts annuli aurei was extended to all classes of citizens. In the case of baldness, a wig (capillamentum) was allowed to men as well as women during the empire. Till 290 b.c. it was the custom of men to let the hair and beard grow long. From that time shaving and short hair were the fashion, till under Hadrian, when long beards were again grown.

Female Dress.— The proximity of wealthy Greek towns in the south of Italy, and the extensive intercourse between the Romans and Greece and the East even in republican times, offered tempting facilities to Roman ladies for the supply of dress, and the result is that in artistic representations their dress does not differ in any important particulars from that of the Greeks as already described. Still the names for the main articles of dress remain Roman, from which it may be inferred that the differences between the original Roman and the imported Greek dress were not essential as regards shape. Next the skin was worn the tunica interior (intusium or interula), loose and without sleeves. Under the breasts passed the mammillare or strophium. Then came the tunica proper, generally called stola, girt at the waist, and with sleeves fastened down the arms as in the chiton. Over this was thrown for out-door wear the palla, or plaid, identical with the Greek himation. A veil over the back of the head (flammeum or ricinium) was the mark of a well-to-do matron. In rainy weather a hood like the Etruscan tutulus was worn. To cover or hold up the hair, nets were used (mitra calantica, calvatica), but this simple article was far from common among the Roman ladies, whose chief characteristic in works of art is the elaborateness of their manner of braiding and twining the hair. After the Germanic wars a blond colour of hair became fashionable, and to get this dyeing was resorted to. Generally the eyebrows and eyelashes were painted ; even the veins on temples were sometimes touched with delicate blue colour. The complexion was improved by various powders and washes. The teeth were carefully looked after, false ones making up the deficiency of nature. For the feet sandals, but by preference shoes, were made use of, generally of bright colours and embroidered with gold or pearls; socks or stockings were confined to ceremonial appearances. Personal ornaments consisted of brooches (fibulae), bracelets (armillae), armlets (bracchialia), ear-rings (inaures), neck laces (monilia), wreaths (coronae), and hair-pins (crinales). The tore (torques), or cord of gold worn round the neck, was introduced from Gaul. A profusion of precious stones, and absence of skill or refinement in workmanship, distinguish Roman from Greek or Etruscan jewellery; but in the character of the designs there is no real difference.

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Egyptian and Assyrian. Egyptian.— The ordinary male dress of the Egyptians, previous to about 1600 b.c., consisted of a piece of linen cloth tied round the loins, with occasionally an upper garment or skin of a tiger or leopard thrown round the body. Though this continued even to much later times to be the dress of many, yet from the date just given distinctions of grade in society began to be marked by different ways of girding the loins, by greater size of the cloth, by twining it up round the body, and by wearing two or more loin cloths of different materials (Weiss, Kostümkunde, i. fig. 18, p. 33). The peculiarly Ethiopian dress was in the form of a sleeveless skirt with fringe round the lower edge, hanging loose except among poorer people, who wore it fitting close to the body. The rule in early times was to go barefooted except on occasions of ceremonial, when a sort of hose of network or greaves were worn. But under the new empire, after 1600 b.c., covering for both feet and head came into general use, the former consisting of sandals, the latter of a cap made of leather, or of what some call cotton. Magistrates and others of rank wore from the earliest times sandals, and on the head a square of cloth folded diagonally with its three points gathered together at the back of the neck. The dress of a king was distinguished by a triangular projecting skirt (fig. 8) of leather and ornamented with gold. Over this he wore a chiton and a sash round the waist. On his head was a crown, pshent, which could be of three kinds, either that of Lower or of Upper Egypt, or a combination of these two, the latter having nearly the appearance of a mitre. A queen wore a long, thin, and richly ornamented chiton, with sash round waist and shoulders (fig.

9). A broad collar round neck and over breast was worn both by men and women who could afford it. The taste for ornament was general, men wearing armlets, bracelets, anklets, and finger-rings, while women not only wore these articles in greater size, number, and richness, but also diadems, girdles, and bands of ornament round the breasts and hips. The national dress, however, for poorer women was a simple close-fitting skirt reaching up to the breast and held up by straps over the shoulders. Woollen garments were worn chiefly by the poor, and occasionally by the rich, or by priests, who were permitted an upper dress of this material. Next the skin it was unlawful to wear it, nor could any one be buried in a dress of this material (Herod, ii. 81). A priest had to put off the woollen part of his dress before entering a temple. Cotton (eìpioiaei ατro ⅛υλoυ, Herod, iii. 47) appears to have been manufactured in Egypt, but to have been less used than linen, or byblus, which was made from flax and cotton.

Assyrian.— In weaving, embroidery, and dyeing the Assyrians surpassed the other ancient nations, as is known from tradition and may be seen in theirexistingsculptures. While the characteristic dress of an ordinary Egyptian was a cloth girt round the loins, that of an Assyrian was a long skirt worn close round the body and with short sleeves. This was worn by all classes, and apparently by women as well as by men. Only royal and priestly persons were allowed an upper garment, at least during the early and flourishing period of Assyria. By the time of Herodotus a considerable variety of other dresses had been introduced among the different classes. The king’s dress, as will be seen in fig. 10, consists of a long chiton, or skirt, with short sleeves, and above this a mantle with heavy fringes passing over one shoulder, or in other cases over both shoulders.

The dress of a priest consisted of an under-chiton, and over it a sort of long narrow plaid with fringe wrapped spirally round the figure (Weiss, i. fig. 119, a, p. 202). Diadems variously ornamented were worn by officers of the court and by certain priests, as were also sandals. Hose did not come into use till a late period, and then chiefly as part of the military dress. Necklaces, armlets, bracelets, and finger-rings were worn in abundance by Assyrians of rank. (a. s. μ.) Jewish.

Of the dress generally worn in ancient Israel there are known to exist no original authentic representations, nor is it possible to refer to any minute descriptions of it either in the one great source of Jewish history or in the pages of Josephus. Certain paintings and sculptures, it is true, in Egypt and Assyria, have been supposed to represent captive Israelites; but, even should this supposition be correct, in the figures thus represented there is nothing whatever which could be accepted as typical of national costume. On the other hand, while in certain details and accessories of the dress adopted by the different classes of the Israelite community, there doubtless arose from time to time both fresh modifications and decided changes of fashion and adjustment, the general essential typical characteristics of dress may be assumed to have continued the same in Israel,—the same, also, as in no slight degree continue todistinguish the Oriental costume still worn in Palestine. The garments, certainly, were loose and flowing; the girdle was in universal use; and a primary motive in the headgear was protection for the wearer from the hot sunshine of the East. The garments, in whatever manner or degree they may have been affected by varieties of material and adornment, certainly may be divided into two distinct groups, the under and the outer garments,—the former being light and specially adapted to a hot climate, and the latter being of heavier materials and suited to the colder seasons. As in the case of their arts, so in their costume the Israelites must be considered to have been influenced by usages prevalent in Egypt and Phoenicia; subsequently, by those of Assyria; and, still later, by those of the Bomans. Again, it is more than probable that local influences introduced fashions of their own into the costume of the dwellers in the more mountainous districts of Palestine. For peculiar classes among them the Israelites had costumes specially appointed. For the priesthood there were their own official vestments, for which regulations were laid down with extreme minuteness, and enforced by supreme authority. The kings and princes had their “royal apparel,” and for the warriors appropriate appointments were provided. Different ranks of persons, too, in various ways were distinguished by the richness, the costliness, the simplicity, or the meanness of their attire. So far as externals went, the episode in the Gospel of the rich man clothed in purple and fine linen with a Lazarus at his gate, so true a picture of Oriental life, would have been equally consistent had it found a place in some one of the earlier chapters in the same national history. Of the distinctive characteristics of female costume in Israel nothing is known, beyond the general fact that it was rich and delicate as far as circumstances would admit, and that personal ornaments were highly prized. Thus much is certain that the veil, a modern fashion now so prevalent in the East, in its modern acceptation was unknown among the women of ancient Israel, with certain exceptions only that are altogether at variance with the uses and associations of the Oriental veil at the present day. Furs, used both for warmth and adornment, with cloth woven from camels’ and from goats’ hair, including the “sackcloth” of sorrow and humiliation, were in use from an early period; so also, doubtless, was woollen cloth, the natural material for the clothing of a pastoral people. Familiarity with fabrics of linen, cotton, and silk, with those of various materials of foreign manufacture, may be considered to have been acquired by the Israelites in and from Egypt. There, too, they became familiar with the process of dyeing, and with the use of coloured threads, and of gold-thread or fine wire, for textile purposes; and there they learned both to introduce various figures and devices into their woven fabrics, and to enhance their effectiveness with the needle. Needlework and embroidery, indeed, were extensively used by them in the production of various decorative fabrics. Whatever may have been the use in Israel of fabrics and decorations that were coloured, those that were white (the natural hue of any material, as well as actual whiteness, being understood to be implied by this term “white ”) were in general use by the Israelites for their dress, and also were held by them in the highest estimation. This preference possibly may be traced to the provision in the Mosaic law which, apparently with the view to impress on the mind of the Israelites the idea of simplicity, and to protect them from the hurtful effects of Oriental luxury and extravagance, forbade the use of mixed textures such as would be produced by wool and flax in combination.

The particular garments of the Israelites, of which express mention is made, include the following :—

I. Under Garments.— (1.) The sadin, a light wrapper, worn next to the person. (2.) The cetoneth, or under-tunic, either sleeveless or having open sleeves, moderately loose, varying in length, and adjusted about the waist in such a manner as to form a pocket from an overlapping fold. Corresponding with the modern kaftan, the cetoneth was habitually in use, worn either with or without the sadin, by both sexes, and by persons of all ranks. (3.) The miel, or over-tunic, made with sleeves, longer and somewhat thicker in substance than the cetoneth, and, like it, in general use. To both these garments the term ’ ‘ coat” is applied in our version of the ancient Scriptures.

II. Outer Garments.— To all these garments, alike in being designed only for occasional use or for use under exceptional conditions and circumstances, in their generic character the term “cloak,” as understood by ourselves, appears to have been applicable. Of these cloaks, robes, mantles, or wrappers there were several varieties, which differed from each other as well in form as in material, substance, and ornamentation; fringes, however, seem to have been generally attached to them; and they were worn with various modes of adjustment. The word malbush distinguished a robe of state. Express mention is made, but unattended with any precise descriptive notices, of more than one variety of shawl, worn by women, which might be so adjusted as to form a head-covering in addition to enveloping the person. To very light female robes also, which were long and flowing, occasional references are made. Of the male head-dresses worn by Israelites, distinct from such coverings for the head as might act as hoods formed by wrapping the mantle or cloak about the head, we have no exact knowledge. Though no such relics are known to be still in existence, goldsmiths’ work and jewellery certainly enjoyed a high degree of estimation in ancient Israel, as always has been the case with all Eastern races; and they constituted important elements in the decoration of Jewish costume.

The passages of chief importance in the Old Testament, in which the vestments of the priesthood are enumerated and described, occur in Exodus xxviii., xxix., and xxxix., and in Leviticus viii. and xvi. In the Apocryphal books also reference may be made to Ecclesiasticus xlv., and to 1 Maccabees X. 21, in which last passage the entire investiture of the high priest is designed to be understood. Very full descriptive notices of the sacerdotal vestments of the Jewish priesthood are given by Josephus, in his Antiquities, iii. 7, and in his Wars, v. v. 7. Further illustration on the same subject is given in his Epistle to Fabiola, ii. 574, written at Bethlehem by St Jerome, 396 a.d.

An “order” or ii change of garments,” for a man— always in the East highly esteemed as both an honourable and a valuable present—among the Israelites consisted of a cenoneth and a miel, with perhaps a sadin, and certainly one or more of the occasional outer robes, mantles, or cloaks. In presents of this kind, the number of the “changes of garments,” which from their loose and flowing character would not fail to adapt themselves to general use, was studiously adjusted to the degree of estimation in which the recipient was held, and not without an indirect and yet significant reference to the dignity of the giver. The expression “naked,” when applied to an Israelite, denoted, not a condition of actual nudity, but the fact of being attired only in a single under garment, and consequently implied the being in readiness for active exercise or violent exertion. The strongly marked and comprehensive distinction between the East and the West receives a characteristic illustration in the Oriental usage of uncovering the feet and covering the head, in token of respect and even of adoration. The “rending the garments,” generally the outer garment only, an act so strange to us in the West, to the Israelites, in common with other Orientals, was peculiarly significant of grief, indignation, humiliation, and despair.

Among the figures painted in the very ancient tomb at Beni Hassan, in Egypt, occurs a group of figures from which the annexed woodcut has been drawn (fig. 11), conjectured to represent the arrival of Joseph’s brethren when they went to purchase corn in the land of the Pharaohs. Again, considerably later, but as early as the days of the Pharaoh - Necho by whom Josiah was defeated and slain at Megiddo, among some figures sculptured in one of the tombs discovered by Belzoni, near Thebes, which represent captives of different nations brought before their Egyptian conqueror, four Jews are supposed to have been introduced after the manner shown in fig. 12. The fringe commanded by Moses, Num. xv. 38, to be worn ’by his people, and which probably was a relic of a still more ancient usage in the family of Jacob, may be considered to have been shown in both these groups. In the almost total absence of other not less improbable ancient examples, these figures may be accepted as contemporary representations of persons whose attire, such as it is shown to have been, at any rate may be considered to represent corresponding articles of dress in use in ancient Israel. Captive Jews, once more, are undoubtedly represented in the fine series of Assyrian bas-reliefs commemorating the capture of Lachish by Sennacherib, discovered and described by Mr Layard (Nineveh and Babylon, p. 152; and 2d series of Monuments of Nineveh, plates xx. toxxiv.) The physiognomy of these Jewish captives is strikingly indicated in the sculptures in question, but of their national costume but very little-is shown; for “they had been stripped of their ornaments and their fine raiment, and were left barefooted and half-clothed. From the women, too, had been removed the ‘ splendor of the foot ornaments, and the caps of network, and the crescents; the ear pendents, and the bracelets, and the thin veils; the head-dresses, and the ornaments of the legs, and the girdles, and the perfume boxes, and the amulets; the rings and the jewels of the nose; the embroidered robes, and the tunics, and the cloaks, and the satchels; the transparent garments, and the fine linen vests, and the turbans, and the mantles; ’ for they wore, ‘ instead of a girdle, a rope; and, instead of a stomacher, a girding of sackcloth.’” (See Isa. iii. 18, &c.; and Ezek. xvi. 10, &c.) Upon the exceedingly interesting description of the dress worn in ancient times by the women of Israel, as given by the two great prophets, Mr Layard remarks that u most of the ornaments enumerated, probably, indeed, the whole of them, if we were acquainted with the exact meaning of the Hebrew words, are still to be traced in the costumes of Eastern women inhabiting the same country. Many appear to be mentioned in the Assyrian inscrip tions among objects of tribute and spoil brought to the king.” With this deference to the dress and ornaments of the female inhabitants of Syria at the present day, of whom twogroupsare represented in figs. 13 and 14, the following brief but graphic passage from the same writer’s Nineveh and Babylon (p. 472) may consistently be associated. On approaching Baghdad, the low banks of the Tigris — the river itself gradually becoming wider and wider, and its stream being almost motionless—were seen to “swarm with Arabs,—men, women, and naked children. Horsemen and riders on white asses were hurrying along the river side. Turks in flowing rcbes and broad turbans; Persians in high black caps and close-fitting tunics; the Bokhara pilgrim in his white head-dress and way-worn garments; the Bedouin chief in his tasselled kessieh and striped aba ; Baghdad ladies, with their scarlet and white draperies fretted with threads of gold, and their black horse-hair veils concealing even their eyes; Persian women wrapped in their sightless garments; and Arab girls in their simple blue shirts,—all were mingled together in one motley crowd.” In the costume in common and constant use at the present day, as well by men—such as is exemplified in the groups shown in figs. 15 and 16—as by women in the towns and villages of Syria, may be discerned the transmitted representations of the general character and aspect of the attire of the same regions in remote centuries; as, in like manner, the patriarchal dress of ancient Israel may be assumed to have had its primitive type in a great measure reproduced in our own times in the long coarse shirt, the ample striped aba of camels’ hair (the coloured stripe that alternates with the white one, denoting the wearer’s tribe), 'and the red and yellow kefiîeh, folded and tied in hereditary fashion about his swarthy face and over his neck and shoulders by the Bedouin Arab of the desert (fig. 17).

Oriental.

If it may be said, as it may certainly be said with truth, of Oriental costume both in its general character and its specific details, that it is distinguished, in contrast to that of the ever-changing West, by the pervading and characteristic unchangeableness of the East, equally true it is that the vast populations which throng the wide expanse of the earth’s surface included in “The East,” comprehend in their numbers the inheritors and the wearers of costumes exhibiting in many peculiar and distinctive features an almost endless variety. At the same time, precisely as a distinct recognition as well of the range as of the applicability and the significance of the one term “The East” suggests no confusion of ideas respecting different Eastern realms and peoples, so also all Oriental costume so far bears the impress of Eastern requirement and association as in a certain degree to admit of a single general classification. Thus, unlike to each other in not a few of their personal qualities as any two human beings well could be, and differing also in many decidedly marked particulars in regard to their costume, the nomad Bedouin of Arabia in every essential respect is no less a true and truly typical Oriental than the most gorgeously attired and, after his fashion, the most refined of the native potentates of Hindustan. So, also, notwithstanding the points of difference between their costumes, the costume as well of the one as of the other is unmistakably Oriental. The same may be said of the dresses of the different races that inhabit Hindustan. And they all share an equally true Oriental brotherhood, and especially in externals, in however decided a manner and degree each race may bear its own distinctive impress even in those very externals, with the natives of Japan and China and Burmah, of Persia, Arabia, Modern Egypt, Armenia, and Turkey, and with other Eastern races also that need not to be here particularized. Unless when circumstances reduce their attire to proportions so scanty as scarcely, if at all, to exceed that of the savage tribes who inhabit some tropical districts, or when influenced by some exceptional conditions, all Orientals are more or less inclined to wear loose and long and flowing garments; their trousers, when any are worn, are very large and gathered in at the ankles; they have their heads habitually covered, whether with a turban, fez, or some variety of cap of a local hereditary style; their feet, when not bare, are very lightly equipped; they delight in white fabrics, mingled with such as exhibit the most brilliant colours and the richest designs; and they indulge in an abundance and variety of personal ornaments. Also a general resemblance prevails between the costumes of the two sexes. The decorative arts of China and Japan, always national both in the selection and the treatment of their subjects, in connection with certain universally esteemed varieties of their manufactures, have familiarized the world with the typical characteristics of the costumes worn by all ranks and classes in those countries. Recent events have caused the more remarkable costumes of India to become well known through several popular publications; and the same may also be said concerning the costumes of other Oriental nations, and those of them more particularly which are nearest to Europe and have the closest relations with Europeans. In South-Eastern Europe itself, the costume of the modern Greeks exhibits semi-Oriental qualities.

Ecclesiastical.

Without extending to any notice of the ordinary attire habitually worn in everyday life, at successive periods, by ecclesiastical personages of all ranks and orders in the Christian church, ecclesiastical costumes here may be considered to imply and consequently to include the vestments, distinctively official and ministerial in their character and use, which such personages would wear only when actually engaged in the functions of their respective offices, or on occasions of special state and solemnity. The habits, which with the advance of time came to be assumed by the members of the monastic orders, may most appropriately and advantageously be treated apart by themselves.

That ministering vestments, properly so called, and with them ecclesiastical insignia, were unknown among Christians of the apostolic age may be considered as unquestionably certain; and, in like manner, in the three succeeding centuries only the faintest traces, if indeed any authentic traces whatever of such vestments can be said either to exist, or to have left indications of ever having existed. The long and flowing garments, suggestive of peaceful repose and enjoyment, and always in some degree endowed with dignified associations, whenever the circumstances of the times would permit, doubtless, were worn by the primitive Christian ministers when discharging their official duties; but it also is no less certain that on the same occasions precisely similar garments were generally worn by Christian worshippers, whose condition justified their appearing in them. During the prolonged stormy period of the second group of four centuries in the Christian era the primitive ecclesiastical costume—the costume, be it remembered, at times of joyous festival and solemn ceremonial adopted by all persons of comparatively high social standing—still was retained unchanged in its general style and aspect, and having experienced only such slight modifications and additions as naturally would have their development with the course of events. As time passed on, keeping pace both with innovations upon primitive doctrine and with vicissitudes of political position, in various ways these modifications became modified, and to these additions fresh novelties gradually were added. Even at the commencement of the 9th century, when the true historic era of ecclesiastical costume may be defined to have commenced with it, the two most remarkable circumstances in connection with ecclesiastical costume were, on the one hand, its approximately unchanged character, and, on the other hand, its close general resemblance, amounting almost to identity, to the old civil costume, which in the state dresses of the Roman official dignitaries survived the sweeping changes of barbarian revolution. It is worthy of especial remark that the earliest evidence of the introduction of any insignia distinctive of rank and dignity in ecclesiastical costume is to be derived from the presence of two dark strips of varying width on the long white tunics in which certain early figures, certainly to be regarded as habited in ecclesiastical vestments, are represented; and these strips can be considered in no other light than as adaptations from the clavi, some broad and others narrow, so well known in classic attire to distinguish the Roman senatorial and equestrian ranks. Equally remarkable is the fact that the Christian hierarchy should have derived the insignia of their rank in the church, through the high position of civil power in the state exercised by the early bishops of Rome, from the official decorations of the Roman magistracy as well of the republic as of the empire. It will be borne in mind that all changes in ecclesiastical vestments, and all additions to those of early date, made by authority during the Middle Ages, were designed to be suggestive of some symbolical motive and to convey some doctrinal significance—considerations, however important in many respects in themselves, which it would be out of place here to discuss even superficially, when treating of all ecclesiastical vestments simply in their capacity as “costume.” In connection also with the full development in the llth and 12th centuries of that type of vestments which, when once it had been formally established, has been maintained with but slight modifications in the Roman Church to the present time, no unimportant part was taken by the attempts, first contemplated in the 9th century, that were made to assimilate such vestments as might be distinctive of the Christian ministry with those appointed in the Mosaic law for the priesthood in Israel. The idea that any such similitude might exist, or should be made to attain to existence, once having arisen would naturally take a strong íiold on the minds of the more ambitious and also of the more learned ecclesiastics of those times. So, when in the first instance the points of difference between the two types of vestments were found to be far more decided than those of resemblance, a process of deliberate assimilation was decreed, which brought about as close an approximation between the two types as was held to be desirable—an approximation, it scarcely is necessary to add, that removed the elaborate and ornate vestments of mediaeval Christendom as far as possible from retaining any affinity to the dignified simplicity of Christian ministerial costume in primitive times.

Vestments in use in the West.

1. The Alb.— In the Acts of the Council of Toledo, 633, the habits and insignia of the three orders of the clergy are thus defined :—of the bishop, the orarium, the ring, and the staff; of the presbyter, the orarium and the planeta; and of the deacon, the orarium and the alba or alb. In this definition it may be assumed to have been implied that the alb was common to the three orders, as the planeta was worn by bishops as well as by presbyters. Its name abbreviated from tunica alba, and at first the simple and yet dignified white linen tunic that in the primitive ages was held to be the costume appropriate for the Christian ministry, in the 9th century the alb began to have its loose and flowing proportions contracted; and these changes were continued until the vestment was made to fit with comparative closeness about the person of the wearer, when it was confined about the waist by a narrow girdle. The pure simplicity of the early white tunic also was superseded by the addition of rich “orfreys'’ (aurifrigia) of embroidery and goldsmiths’ work. These “apparels” (parurae), in the form of masses and stripes, were attached to the lower part of the alb and to the wrists of its sleeves. In the second half of the 14th century the wrist-apparels of albs, instead of encircling the sleeves as previously had been the custom, appear only upon the upper part of them.

2. The Stole, the name in the 9th century given to the ancient orarium,, itself as it would seem having its prototypes in the Roman clavi, is a narrow scarf adjusted about the neck so as to have its extremities hanging down in front of the wearer. Originally white and without ornament, stoles after a time were made of various colours, were enriched with orfreys and fringed at their ends. Worn immediately over the alb, the stole is crossed upon the breast of the wearer, being retained in that position by passing under the girdle. When the chasuble is worn, and worn without the episcopal dalmatic and tunic, the ends of the stole appear issuing from beneath it. In some few early ecclesiastical effigies, which are without a chasuble, but in its stead have a cope open in front, the entire adjustment of tiιe stole is distinctly shown, as in fig. 18 drawn from a brass at Horsham, This effigy also shows in what manner the alb, amice, and maniple are worn, and it may advantageously be compared with fig. 20, also drawn from a brass to Peter de Lacy, rector of Northfleet, in Northfleet Church, in which the stole for the most part is covered by the chasuble. Its ancient name orarium, equivalent to our “handkerchief,” shows the mediaeval stole to have been designed as well to wipe the face as, in accordance with primitive usage, to cover it when offering prayer. For deacons it was appointed to wear the stole depending from over the left shoulder only, so as to show but one end of it on the front of their persons (fig. 19). The idea of a connection in the significance of the stole to denote dignity with the ribband worn as a knightly distinction is obvious.

3. The Maniple.— A short species of stole, the representative of the ancient mappula and its successor, the maniple, which is worn so as to hang from the left wrist, may be considered to have been substituted in the first instance for the purposes to which the stole itself originally had been applied. Like the stole, however, the maniple, regarded as one of the ecclesiastical vestments as early as the 9th century, soon became merely a decorative accessory'· of the official costume of ecclesiastics (see figs. 18, 20).

4. The Chasuble.— This super-vestment, worn over the alb and the stole, and by ecclesiastics of episcopal rank also over the dalmatic and tunic, which in the 11th century was expressly associated with the ecclesiastical office, is identical with the casula of the 9th century and, through it, derived from the plancta of still earlier times. Both plancta and casula, however, as over-garments furnished with a hood which would envelop the entire person, were worn by laymen, the chief if not the only distinction between these two garments being that the former from its greater costliness was in use by persons of rank and wealth, while the latter was adopted by the humbler and poorer classes. In form and general character both the plancta and the casula appear to have resembled the ancient paenula, an outer garment worn in Italy long before our era, and of which the memory still survives in the title of the ecclesiastical super-vestment of the East. Circular or oval in form, and having in the centre an aperture for the head of the wearer to pass through, the chasuble covers the arms as well as the body, so that when they are raised it falls over the arms both before and behind. Made of various materials and of different colours, in early representations of it this vestment is constantly found to have been elaborately adorned with embroideries and other decorative accessories, also with a profusion of orfreys in gold and silver work enriched with gems (fig.

20). A favourite form of chasuble-orfrey, evidently an imitation of the archiépiscopal pall, encircles the head-aperture and, passing over the shoulders of the wearer, falls in a straight line down both the back and the front of his person.

5. The Amice.— First mentioned as a vestment in the 9th century, and from the following century enriched with apparels, when opened out the amice was square in shape, and it was adjusted precisely after the manner of its present adjustment, beneath both alb and chasuble, about the throat and over the shoulders. In monumental effigies the apparel of this vestment is represented either falling back from the throat of the wearer, or, in the later examples, standing up somewhat stiffly around it; and this position over the chasuble sometimes has suggested the mistaken idea that the apparel of the amice forms a collar to the chasuble itself. By holding it for a few moments over the head at the time of putting it on, the amice in course of time was considered to symbolize the Christian helmet (see fig. 20).

6. ’ lhe Dalmatic, a full-sleeved tunic reaching about to the knees. Long after its adoption as an ecclesiastical vestment, the dalmatic continued in use in Rome as a garment appropriate for secular officials on occasions of ceremony and state; and at the present time it continues, as it continued through the Middle Ages, to be a royal robe as well in England as on the Continent. _ Like the other ancient vestments, originally white and plain, in the 10 th century the dalmatic assumed various colours, and in the 12th and the succeeding centuries it followed t he colour of the chasuble. Appointed to bo worn by deacons over the alb as the distinctive vestment of their order, when made of costly materials and richly adorned the dalmatic was added to their official costume by prelates, by them to be worn immediately under the chasuble. In early episcopal effigies the lower part of the dalmatic is represented, appearing beneath the chasuble, richly fringed and partially slit up at the sides, as in fig. 21, drawn from the corresponding part of the brass to Thomas Cranley, archbishop of Dublin, in the chapel of New College, Oxford, 1417. Nearly a century earlier (1325), in the cathedral of St Nazairβ at Carcassonne in France, the statue of Bishop Pierre de Roquefort, which is without the chasuble, shows with admirable distinctness the form and adjustment of the episcopal dalmatic, with the tunic appearing beneath it, the ends of the stole being visible issuing from beneath them both. The large sleeves of the dalmatic and the tight sleeves of the tunic are shown at the wrists, and from the left wrist the maniple hangs down (fig. 22). Over the other vestment (as in fig. 18) is a cope, fastened across the breast with a morse charged with an Agnus Dei. The prelate wears his mitre, and in his hand he holds his pastoral-staff. In England, in Norwich Cathedral, there is a similar example of the episcopal habit in the effigy of Bishop Goldwell (1498), which re presents both dalmatic and tunic as shorter than in the French statue; the dalmatic also has a broad central vertical band of rich embroidery, and at the wrists the sleeves of the alb, tunic, and dalmatic are shown. Figures of deacons, rare in mediaeval art, when they occur generally profess to represent St Lawrence, with the instrument of his martyrdom. In fig. 23, reduced from a drawing on vellum in a MS. of the 13th century in the Lambeth Library, the dalmatic, which is nearly as long as the unusually short alb, is shown as it was ornamented and worn at that period. Another good example, much later in date, also a figure of St Lawrence, is sculptured in one of the canopied compartments of the monumental chantry of Prince Arthur Tudor in Worcester Cathedral. Fig. 19, from the Liber Pontificalis of Landolfus, a MS. of the 9th century, shows how the stole was disposed over the left shoulder by a deacon wearing an alb and a dalmatic.

7. The Tunic.— The vestment distinguished by this name, worn by prelates between the alb and the dalmatic, is rather longer than the vestment last named, and its sleeves also are somewhat longer and not quite so full. As the vestments increased in number, and at the same time became less simple and more splendid, the gradual addition of one tunic after another, to be traced from the 9th century downwards, was strictly in keeping with the spirit of the times. Early in the 14th century it had a remarkable parallel in the succession of surcoats, with which, regardless of their palpable inconvenience, the knights covered their armour. It is specially curious to observe how studiously the men-at-arms carried out their imitation of the ecclesiastical vestments of their day, by making each one of their successive surcoats in front of their persons shorter than the one beneath it, so displaying them all. In the case of the ecclesiastical vestments, the tunic proper, become distinctively the alb or under-tunic, was covered by the tunic, a rich and splendid vestment; and the dalmatic, shorn of its ancient length in order to leave the second or middle tunic visible, followed, third in order, and became the super-tunic of the group. The tunic, like the dalmatic, partially slit at its sides and generally fringed, is well represented in monumental effigies and other early works (see fig· 21).

8. The Cope, a voluminous cloak or outer garment, originally furnished with a hood for covering and protecting the head, and of sufficient size to envelop the entire person of the wearer, would naturally admit of every possible variety in material, colour, and ornamentation, and it also would be used as well by laymen, as by ecclesiastics of all orders and by monks. Richly adorned copes, however, appear in mediaeval times to have been considered as almost exclusively ecclesiastical vestments of stately dignity, to be worn ∕∣ι processions and on those ceremonial occasions which would be distinguished from the service of the altar. Such copes, having splendid border-apparels into which canopied figures of sainted personages frequently were introduced with heraldic and other devices, were fastened across the breast by a morse, often of costly material and highly artistic workmanship (see fig. 22).

9. The Almuce or Aumuce, a hood of fur, was apparently introduced in the 13th century, its object being to afford protection from cold in processions, &c., and in the 15th century a cape and pendants also of fur were added to it.

10. The Surplice, an alb, almost of primitive form, ample and flowing, and closely resembling the surplice of the present day, was in use in the Middle Ages in processions and on certain occasions of ceremony. An excellent example of a surplice of the 15th century is given in the noble brass to Prior Nelond, at Cowfold, Sussex, 1433.

11. The Mitre.— First mentioned among ecclesiastical vestments about the middle of the 12th century, though some kind of dignified episcopal head-gear certainly had been in use considerably earlier, the mitre originally was made of linen embroidered; and it does not appear in its well-known double or cleft form until the 12th century had made a considerable advance, when it began to be constructed of some rich material and to receive costly adornment. Previous to the 14th century, when they attained to the perfection of their form, mitres were very low, their contour then being concave Subsequently they became more and more elevated, and their contour was changed from concave to convex. Two short bands of some rich material, fringed at the ends, form the infulae of a mitre, and depend from it, one on either side.

12. The Crosier and the Pastoral-Staff.— The former, having a cross-head, is appropriated to archbishops; and the latter, the official pastoral-staff of bishops and abbots, has a crook-head, like the head of a shepherd’s staff. Expressly mentioned as the ensign of the episcopal office in the first half of tne 7th century, as early as the 10th century the pastoral-staff became enriched with elaborate and precious ornamentation, and was adorned with a vexillum, or scarf, attached to the staff immediately below the cross or crookhead. The idea that some special signification is conveyed by the position in which in monumental effigies and in other episcopal figures the pastoral-staff is represented to be held appears to be without any foundation.

13. The episcopal Ring, Gloves, and Boots.— Early in the 7th century, and probably still earlier, a ring of large size, to be worn on the right hand, formed a regular part of the episcopal insignia; and in the full development of the vestments which took place in the 12th century, embroidered gloves, made with an opening to display the ring, and corresponding boots or shoes were included as components of the full official attire of the hierarchy.

14. The Pall (“Pallium").— This remarkable vestment, sent by the Pope to prelates of archiépiscopal rank, and restricted to their order, being in fact a peculiar form of the orarium or stole, consists of a narrow band of white lamb’s wool, forming a circle to rest on the chasuble around the throat and over the shoulders, from which circle depend two other bands of the same fabric and width to hang down, the one on the front and the other on the back of the prelate, thus, whether seen in front or behind, presenting the appearance of the letter Y. The depending bands, which terminate in fringes and appear occasionally to have been fastened with golden pins to the chasuble, like the circular band, are charged with crosses pattée-fitchée of black or purple silk. This pall, constantly represented in early works of Christian art through successive centuries, and blazoned among ourselves in the armorial insignia of the archiépiscopal see of Canterbury, is seen to have varied but slightly in either its form or its adjustment from the 9th century to the 16th. An apparel, evidently designed to represent the pall, is found constantly to have been adopted for the ornamentation of mediaeval chasubles. The pall still in use in the Roman Church has the pendant bands considerably shorter than they appear in the early representations (see fig. 21).

15. The Chimere and Rochet.— Of the former it will be sufficient to state it to be a modification of the cope; while the latter, a long sleeveless robe representing a garment known as a colobium in ancient times, appears to have been assigned distinctively for episcopal use, and also after the Reformation to have been allied to the full lawn-sleeves well known at the present day, from being well suited to be worn under another vestment. By prelates of the Reformed Church a short cassock of black silk is worn with their ordinary attire. A long loose black cassock also was commonly worn by ecclesiastics during the 17th and 18th centuries.

Vestments in use in the East. —In its general bearing, what has been said of the vestments in use in Western Christendom, and particularly in reference to their use during the first eight centuries of our era, with comparatively slight modifications, is also applicable to the official vestments of the church in the East,—the chief distinctions between the vestments of the East and the West, in addition to such as may in a great degree be traced to the influences of climate and to certain local associations, being a closer adherence in the former than in the latter to the earliest usages. The Greek Church also, being very tenacious in its own usages, to the present day retains everywhere its mediaeval vestments, their forms, names, and uses remaining unchanged—the sticharion corresponding with the alb and the early dalmatic of the West; the phaelonion, with the chasuble and its earlier predecessors, the casula and planeta; the omophorion, with the pall; and the orarion, with the orarium and its successor the stole.

Monastic.

The habits worn during the Middle Ages by the monastic orders may be briefly described as follows :—

Benedictines.— Gown or cassock of black, white, or russet cloth, with white or black fur, and black cape and hood.

Cluniacs. — Habit entirely black.

Cistercians.— White cassock with cape and small hood; over this when in the church a white gown, when abroad a black gown.

Carthusians.— Habit entirely white, except black cloak.

Augustines. — Black cassock under white full-sleeved tunic; over all, black cloak and hood; square black cap.

Praemonstratensians, White Canons.—Cassock and tunic, long cloak and hood, and round cap,—all of them white.

GilberHnes.— Monks.—Black cassock and hood, and white cloak lined with lamb’s wool. Nuns.—Black tunic, cloak, and hood, the last lined with lamb’s wool.

Dominicans, or “Black Friars.”—Same habit as that worn by the Augustine monks.

Franciscans, -or “Grey Friars.”—Loose and long grey cassock girded with a cord; hood or cowl and cloak of the same.

Carmelites, or “White Friars. ”—Habit white throughout; but from about 1240 to about 1290, their cloaks were party-coloured, white and red.

Austin Friars, or “Eremites.”—White cassock girded with a leather thong, with short tunic and hood; and over these, long, black gown with wide sleeves and hood.

Crossed (“Crutched ”) Friars.— Blue habit, with plain red cross.

Maturines, or “Trinitarian Friars.”—Habit entirely white, with eight-pointed cross of red and blue.

The monastic garment named “scapulary,' ’ the exact character of which has not been decidedly determined, appears to have been a short super-tunic, sleeveless, but having a hood or cowl.

Academic.

In the Middle Ages, professors or doctors and bachelors of divinity, and graduates of the universities above the rank of bachelor in the faculties of arts and law, in addition to the customary costume of their time and station, in connection with their academic rank wore long flowing gowns having slits at the sides for their arms to pass through, with large capes or tippets and hoods, the latter having pendant streamers, these capes and hoods in many instances forming parts of the same article of dress. Graduates of the highest rank also wore round caps, pointed in the crown, and of a dark colour. In the 15th century, when distinctions appear first to have been introduced into the costumes of masters and bachelors of arts, the gowns of the latter were shorter than those of masters, and had full sleeves reaching to the wrists and pointed at the back. The capes and hoods of bachelors also were bordered with white fur or wool. By various peculiarities of form, colour, and lining, the gowns, capes, and hoods of graduates of all the higher ranks certainly were distinguished; but in the comparatively rare examples of monumental effigies represented in academic habit, which almost without exception are destitute of colour, these distinctions are not shown in any regular or marked and decided manner. Throughout the last two hundred years, if not for a still longer period, the academic habits of the University of Oxford have retained their forms unaltered. They may generally be classified in two groups—ecclesiastical and civil. The gowns of the former, worn by all graduates in both divinity and arts, and also by all members on the foundation of any college, have loose sleeves, are destitute of collars and gathered in in small plaits at the back, and bear a general resemblance to what is known of the more ancient habits, the sleeves of the masters’ gowns still having slits (now cut horizontally, instead of vertically) for the passage of the arms. On the other hand, the gowns of graduates in law and the other faculties, and of undergraduates who are not on the foundation of any college, besides being of less ample proportions, have falling collars and closer sleeves, which latter in the undergraduates’ gowns have dwindled into mere strips; and they evidently derive their origin from parts of the ordinary dress of civilians in the 16th and 17th centuries. The gowns of graduates of the University of Cambridge for the most part are the same as those worn in the sister university; but at Cambridge the undergraduates, not being on the foundation, of almost every college have a gown appropriated to their own college. The hoods of their degrees worn by graduates in the faculties of divinity and arts are distinguished as follows:— D.D., Oxford scarlet cloth, lined with black silk; Cambridge, scarlet cloth, lined with lilac blossom or pink silk , Μ.A., Oxford, black, lined with cherry-colour or crimson; Cambridge, black, lined with white; Dublin, lined with blue; Durham, lined with purple; London, lined with brown. B.A. hoods are black and bordered with white fur.

Early European and Mediaeval.

For the purpose of the present article the terms “early European” and “mediaeval” may be considered to apply to the period ranging from the withdrawal of the Romans from Britain to the accession of the Stuarts to the thròne of Great Britain—that is, from about the close of the first quarter of the 5th century to the commencement of the 17th century; and the latter term, “mediaeval,” may date the commencement of its application from the establishment of his Anglo-Saxon dynasty by Egbert at the opening of the 9th century.

A prolonged period of total darkness having passed away, at first, and for a considerable time, in addition to written descriptions and indirect notices which frequently are far from being intelligible, and to such actual relics as originally were deposited with the remains of the dead without any view either to monumental commemoration or to historical illustration, the authorities are restricted to the illuminated compositions which so happily are associated with early MSS. After a while, the earliest seals and some ivory carvings lend such aid as may lie within the compass of their power Next follow those invaluable illustrators of costume, monumental effigies of every class, with which may be allied figures represented in architectural sculpture and painting, upon seals also and coins. Actual relics throughout the era of monumental effigies gradually increase in both number and variety, until at length the ages of personal portraiture, properly so called, are duly reached. It will be borne in mind that until some years after the close of the 15 th century, defensive armour occupied a most important position in what strictly was the “costume” of the men of the higher classes, whose effigies, with rare exceptions only, appear sculptured, engraven, or painted in their armour, precisely as the men themselves had been armed and equipped when in life. In the Middle Ages in Europe, costume, considered as dress distinct and distinguished from armour, was affected in no slight degree by the prevailing character of the armour of each successive period, so long as a defensive equipment of any kind continued to be generally adopted. Dresses that had been devised expressly to be worn, some of them under defences of mail or plate, and others over them, suggested much in the way of garments that never would, have any direct connection with armour. Again, when not armed, nobles, knights, and men-at-arms naturally would adopt such loose and flowing garments as would combine the greatest degree of ease with a dignified aspect; and their example in this respect would be certain to be very widely followed. The feudal system, also, powerfully aided by the heraldic sentiment that at once grew up in the feudal era and gave to it its tone and colour, exercised a powerful influence upon the costume of the various classes who, under varying conditions, were dependent upon a common feudal superior. And this influence, while adapting itself in matters of detail to personal considerations, in its general bearing acted with uniform effect upon the entire community. Of the extravagance of so many of the diverse costumes that followed each other in rapid succession during the 14th and 15th centuries, much may be directly traced to the development of heraldry in those ages, and to the enthusiastic delight in armorial devices and insignia then universally prevalent. The singular resemblance in many marked particulars between the dresses of the two sexes, observable in the Middle Ages, undoubtedly was stimulated by the science and art of the contemporary heralds; as the strange and often wildly fantastic crests and the mantlings displayed upon their helms and basinets by the one sex were parodied, and sometimes were fairly outdone, by the equally strange and no less wildly fanciful head-gear adopted by the other sex, with a view either to conceal or to enhance the natural glory of their hair. Mediaeval costume, once more, would experience both changes and modifications arising out of the introduction of fresh manufactures, and necessarily resulting from the constantly expanding range of the foreign commercial relations of different coun tri es. Costume, moreover, would be certain to be attracted by the progressive phases of national civilization, culture, and refinement, even though it might not consistently keep pace with them. Fashion, too, always arbitrary and often inexplicable, would not fail to do its work effectually, under the diversified conditions and aspects of advancing centuries, among races by whom to costume it is assigned, not merely to clothe the persons of both sexes, but also to display and adorn the human figure.

It will be observed that, in all countries among civilized races, in the degree that climate is more temperate, in that same degree is costume more liable to changes and fluctuations, and more completely under the sway of fashion. In regions that are very hot or very cold, fashion, however quaint and eccentric, is long-lived and tenacious of its hold, so that the costume of one generation for the most part is reflected in that of its successor. In like manner, costume, and especially in its general character, is comparatively permanent among mountaineers. The history of costume, it must be added, approximately complete and explicit as it may be, can contain but little more than scant notices of the unavoidably simple or even rude attire of a considerable proportion of the laborious population in every country .and at every period.

Subjugation by the Romans in the first centuries of the Christian era naturally was followed by a general conformity among the conquered populations to the costume of their more civilized as well as more powerful rulers, so that after a while Roman dress may be considered to have become European. And, as Rome herself through her Eastern connections had yielded in no slight degree to Oriental influences in matters connected with costume, so also Roman influence in the West carried with it much that was strongly marked with the characteristics of the East. This singular association also in after times derived fresh impulses, as well in peaceful costume as in armour and other military matters, through the direct agency of the crusades, acting in concert with an artistic current flowing westwards continually in the Middle Ages from Byzantium.

Anglo-Saxon. —Generally simple in its character and designedly adapted both to the tastes and sentiments and to the usages and requirements of a hardy and temperate race, the prevailing costume of the Anglo-Saxons consisted of a sleeved tunic, varying in length, but generally comparatively short, partly open at the sides, and confined about the waist by a girdle. Over this tunic, which was made of various colours, and both plain and occasionally enriched with varied ornamentation, a short cloak was worn by the young, while in its stead a mantle of ampler dimensions and greater length was adopted by persons more advanced in age. Similar mantles, not assumed as wrappers for extra warmth or protection against the weather, were in general use at ceremonies and festivals. Trews or drawers, continued to form hose for the lower limbs, with shoes or low boots, completed the ordinary attire of the men, who wore their beards, and delighted in having long and flowing hair. Ornaments, many of them of gold and remarkable for beauty of design and excellence of workmanship, were freely used by the Anglo-Saxons of both sexes; and the numerous fibulae, brooches, armlets, and other personal ornaments that have been discovered in their graves attest the attainment of the Anglo-Saxons to an advanced condition of civilization and refinement. A peculiarity in the dress of the men of all ranks was the cross-gartering of their hose, or their simply covering their legs below the knee with crossed swathing bands fastened at the knee. The females wore long tunics or gowns, made loose and high, and girt in about the waist. Over these they had shorter tunics, often much enriched, and with sleeves, unlike the close-fitting sleeves of their under tunics, that were very wide, and widest at the wrist. Over all, mantles of ample size and provided with hoods to cover the head were thrown, and disposed with effective gracefulness. Coverchefs also were habitually in use, to cover the head when the mantle would not be assumed; and they often were so adjusted as to encircle the face and to cover both the throat and the shoulders; so that they may correctly be regarded as prototypes of the wimple, so popular in somewhat later times. The girdle, it may be added, as worn by both sexes, was rather a swathing band, folded for doing girdle duty, than a girdle proper. The costume of the princes, the nobles, and the wealthy, while in its general character the same as that already described, was distinguished by greater richness of material and more costly adornment. As if to parody the universal fashion of cross bandages for the legs, the Anglo-Saxons habitually wore upon their arms twisted bracelets or torques, or, in their stead, a number of simple bracelets—a custom common to them and all their kindred of Scandinavian descent.

Costumes (especially English) from the 11th to the 17th Century. Century XI. — During the brief rule of the Danes, the national cos· tume does not appear to have experienced any change in England. The advent of the Normans brought with it to England the establishment of that luxury in dress, with which the Anglo-Saxons previously had become in some degree acquainted, and which was destined to so great an extent to supersede the still prevailing simplicity of their hereditary attire. The Norman conquerors, however, with their short cloaks and shaven faces, were not slow to adopt so much of the Saxon style of dress as led them to wear tunics of ample proportions, and in many ways to assume whatever in that dress was most graceful and dignified. Still, as in other things, so in costume, until the 12th century had made a considerable advance the powerful and wealthy Anglo-Normans preserved an external visible distinction between themselves and their Anglo-Saxon fellow-subjects. And yet, the ordinary costume of the people of England appears to have undergone no characteristic change during the second half of the 11th century, seeing that short tunics and capes, cloaks with hoods, cross-bandaged chausses or hose, shoes or low boots, and caps pointed in the crown continued in general use. But it was not so with the nobles, who speedily indulged in every species of ostentatious display upon their persons, covering their rich dresses with ornamentation, introducing gorgeous novelties in fabrics, with costly furs, lengthening their garments till they swept the ground, and widening their sleeves till they hung down open-mouthed from their wrists. To these wide and open-mouthed sleeves the Norman ladies speedily added long pendant lappets, in which extravagant form this portion of their dress was commemorated in the heraldic “maunche” of later times (fig. 24). Tunics richly adorned, made to fit closely about the figure, but with long and loosely flowing skirts, and having the “maunche” sleeves, with splendid mantles of ample size which were fastened on one of the shoulders and were furnished with hoods, enjoyed the highest favour with the Norman ladies, who also wore their hair in heavy and long braids, when the century of the Conquest came to its termination.

Century XII.— Like their armour—if to their defensive equipment the term armour may be applicable—and weapons, the costume of the Normans when they established themselves in England, while exhibiting significant tokens of affinity to that worn by their own Scandinavian contemporaries, had become assimilated to the dress prevalent among the races with whom they were familiar more to the south. As a matter of course, also, through what remained of the 11th century, and until the succeeding century had far advanced, the distinctive characteristics of Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman attire were retained, and appeared simultaneously in use; nor can they be considered to have become blended in what might claim to be accepted as a single national costume before the reign of Henry III. Many circumstances appear to have combined to have caused the same general character of costume, unless under special local circumstances, to have prevailed throughout Europe during the period of mediaeval armour—from the second half of the 12th century, that is, till the end of the 16th—the same general uniformity in essentials being further observable in the armour itself. It may here be remarked, that both the armour and the costume represented in the monumental effigies of the Middle Ages are alike in being distinguished by a pervading simplicity and an absence of excesses, which in a signal degree qualify them to be accepted as typical rather than as exceptional examples and authorities. This is especially the case with the monumental effigies of various kinds, second to none as works of mediaeval art, that abound throughout England. It but too frequently happens, however, that in forming their estimate of costume, reversing the judicious and sound principles adopted by the monumental artists of the Middle Ages, writers permit themselves to select as their types the occasional eccentricities and vagaries of fashion or of individual extravagance.

The first sculptured representations of English sovereigns that are known to exist in England appear at the sides of the great west doorway-arch of Rochester Cathedral, and they show the costume worn by Henry I. and his queen Matilda of Scotland. The king, in whose reign beards and long hair again came into fashion, has gathered about his person a flowing tunic, worn under a dalmatic and a mantle; his queen also wears corresponding garments, the sleeves of her dalmatic (or over-tunic) being even wider than those of her consort. Her hair she wears in two very long braids, one of them hanging down on either side on the front of her person. Under and upper tunics, girdles, and mantles, both with and without hoods, pointed caps and low hats with wide brims, and leggings and shoes, are represented in the various illuminations of this era, which convey very clear and well-defined ideas of the costume then in use by various classes and both sexes. Towards the close of this century the costume of Henry II. and of his Queen Eleanor, as represented in their effigies, may be accepted as characteristic illustrations of a period in which considerable luxury in dress was becoming generally prevalent. The king is attired in an under-tunic reaching to his feet, and a blue tunic almost of the same length, both garments having comparatively tight sleeves reaching to the wrists; over the upper-tunic is a dalmatic of crimson enriched with a floral pattern in gold, long but not very full, and without any front-opening being apparent, its full sleeves shorter than those of the tunic; over all, a purple mantle, fastened with a morse on the right shoulder, covers the left arm, and is drawn up on the right side so as partly to cover the figure also on the right side below the girdle. The gloves are jewelled, and the boots, green in colour, enriched with gold and armed with golden spurs, are broad and slightly pointed. Over a white under-tunic, visible only at the throat where it is fastened by a circular brooch, the queen wears a long tunic or gown, loose throughout, its sleeves tight at the wrists and enlarging upwards to the shoulders, which is secured about the waist by a buckled girdle. The pattern upon this dress, which is represented to have been worn uncovered by a dalmatic, and is white, consists of golden crescents in pairs, set reversed and contained within the meshes of an interlaced lozenge-work also golden. The mantle of blue, studded with golden crescents, is secured across the breast with a cord, and, falling back from the shoulders, it is gathered up on both sides and drawn partly across the figure in front. About her face the queen has a plain wimple; and beneath her crown her head is covered with a coverchef, which falls in folds on either shoulder. The king also is crowned; but his sceptre has been broken away from his right hand. In her illuminated portraits, Eleanor of Aquitaine is represented with a wimple, which is fastened with a circlet of gems; her under-tunic, or cote-hardi, fitting closely and having tight sleeves, is gathered into a rich collar about her throat; over this dress is a loose tunic, long and flowing, guarded with fur, its full and open sleeves also being lined with fur: and, over all, there is the ever-present mantle, generally of some light material, so adjusted that at the pleasure of the wearer it might be drawn over the head. Henry II. is not known to have been represented wearing the short cloak of Anjou, familiarly associated with his name. A few years later the same royal attire is represented in the effigy of Richard I. Here, over a white under-tunic, the long tunic and the almost equally long crimson dalmatic are shown to be slit up at the sides; the latter garment has very full sleeves, which hang down from a little above the wrists,‘and the rich girdle, covered by the mantle in his father’s effigy, is shown. The mantle, of royal blue and gold, has a different adjustment, being fastened in the centre over the chest by a large morse, from which it falls back over the right shoulder, but on the left side it is drawn forward so as partly to cover the person and to hang down in folds over the arm; and on the right side also this mantle is drawn forward below the girdle. The king is crowned; he wears gloves, jewelled at the back of the hand; and to his enriched boots, which in their form and adornment resemble his father’s, his spurs are attached by buckled straps. In all these royal effigies it is certain that a faithful representation is given of 1 he remains, attired as had been the custom of these personages inlife, when lying in state before interment. In that warlike and turbulent age, when the possession of good arms and armour and the means of effecting improvements in them were objects of supreme importance, the peaceful population appear to have been content to retain the system and style of dress in use shortly after the establishment of the Norman dynasty A tunic, worn over some under-garment, generally made to reach about to the knees, but sometimes very .short, constantly made with a cape and occasionally also with a hood, loose chausses or trews and light hose and pointed boots or shoes, with some kind of cap for head-gear, and a hood to the favourite cloak or mantle, formed the prevalent male dress. The nobles and other men of rank, when not in their armour, aspired to rival the princes in the richness of their attire; and, in addition to such costumes as might be habitual to them when engaged in active occupations, wealthy citizens were not slow to follow the higher and perhaps still richer classes as closely as might be permitted to them, by indulging in long and flowing gown-like tunics when in repose or on occasions of ceremony and festivity. The long tunics which came into use by men early in the century at first had long sleeves very wide at the wrists; and at the same time the sleeves of their tunics were worn of extravagant length and proportions by ladies of rank. This extravagance, particularly in the male attire, however, had almost disappeared before the close of the century. On the whole, the female attire may be said in its common use to have been subjected to but little of decided change, except that in its general aspect it exhibited somewhat less of an Oriental character than it had done at the commencement of the century. The powerful influence exercised by the East through the crusades on the armour and military appointments of the warriors of the West, did not take effect till the next century in matters connected with Western female fashions and usages.

Century XIII.— As in the century next succeeding, in both the first and the second half of the 13th century, royal costume, which may be accepted as the most perfect example of the dress of the higher and wealthier classes, is happily exemplified with the highest contemporary authority. King John, upon whose monument (itself a work of the Tudor era) in Worcester Cathedral rests the earliest of the royal portrait effigies that are in existence in England, is attired in a loose tunic reaching from the throat almost to the ankles, having tight sleeves, and its colour being golden. Over this is a loose full-sleeved crimson dalmatic, shorter than the tunic, bordered about the throat-opening and at the very wide extremities of the sleeves with richly gemmed gold embroidery, and secured about the waist by a buckled girdle having a long pendant end. The mantle, worn over all, which hangs down the back of the figure, is gathered up on the right arm in a manner long as well as very generally adopted by both sexes. The king, who has red hose with black boots and golden spurs, is crowned, a circlet of jewels which binds his hair appearing on his brow from beneath his crown. In his gloved hands, the gloves being gemmed, he holds his sword and what remains of his sceptre. Among notices of King John’s costume, he is recorded to have appeared at a certain Christmas festival in a white damask tunic with a jewelled girdle and gloves, his mantle being of red satin embroidered with sapphires and pearls. Over a white under-tunic fastened with a circular brooch at the throat, Queen Isabel of Angoulême appears in her effigy habited in a long blue tunic covered with single golden crescents; this robe, which is loose and flowing throughout, has its full sleeves gathered in at the wrists, and it is adjusted about the waist by a rich girdle secured by a buckle. The queen wears a wimple and on her coverchef rests her crown; her mantle, which hangs from her shoulders and on her right side is drawn partly over her figure, is yellow covered with red roses and green leaves. Berengaria, the widow of Richard I., who died about 1235, is attired in the same fashion; but her tunic, of ampler proportions, is more gracefully disposed; her large brooch is elaborately enriched; from her gemmed girdle on her left side an aumonière, or purse, is suspended; her mantle, secured by a narrow cord across her breast, is not drawn forward; she wears no wimple, and her coverchef is so adjusted about her crowned head as to permit her wavy hair to be visible. The effigy of this royal widow displays no tokens of any such style or accessories of costume as might have reference to her condition of widowhood.

The crowned effigy of Henry III. (1272), a noble work, is remarkable for the classic grace and dignity of the adjustment of the ample mantle about the king’s person, over his long tunic and dalmatic; this mantle is fastened by a large morse on the right shoulder. The king’s boots, which are elaborately embroidered with small gold lions enclosed in lozenge-work, are without spurs. During the long reign of this weak prince but few decided changes appear to have taken place to affect what gradually had settled down into becoming the national costume in England. New varieties, however, of rich and costly fabrics continued to be introduced, and they were eagerly adopted as materials for their dress by both sexes of the wealthier classes. Eleanor of Provence is represented clad in an embroidered mantle having an ermine collar, fastened with a small brooch over a close-fitting and wide-skirted tunic of gold brocade, having its sleeves so cut as nearly to cover the hands. At this time furs of various kinds were greatly in request. The fashion, too, which had been introduced in the time of Rufus and was long prevalent, of cutting the borders of dresses into fantastic patterns became more general, and often was carried to excess. Sleeveless tunics, which would show the sleeves as well as the lower parts of the longer under-tunics, began to assume a recognized position in the female attire of the time; and, no longer braided in long tails, ladies’ hair was arranged within network of gold or silver filagree or of silk, the wimple and coverchef, now constantly of very rieh materials, being retained in use, and often so adjusted as to display the countenance in a triangular form after the manner of the mail coif of the knights. Of this fashion the effigy of Aveline, first countess of Lancaster, in Westminster Abbey, affjrds a truly characteristic illustration (fig. 25). At this same period the diapered patterns and rich tissues of Ypres attained to a great celebrity, and heraldic devices began to appear as decorative accessories of dress. No effigy of the warlike Edward I. exists, to show him either in Iris mail, or in such attire as it pleased him to assume when not fully armed; but, doubtless, the fine effigy of Fair Rosamond’s son, Earl William Longespée, in Salisbury Cathedral, may be accepted as a sufficiently accurate illustration of the military uniform of the first Edward after the Conquest, who also may be assumed to have been attired, when his mail had been laid aside, much after the fashion of his father. It is well known that in his day princes and nobles arrayed themselves in flowing robes, worn over comparatively closely fitting tunics or doublets, these garments being made of silk damasks and satins of brilliant colours, with adornments of goldsmiths’ work and furs, in the use of which they were freely followed by the knights and the wealthy classes as well as by the ladies of their era. N ot content with the triangular adjustment of the wimple, towards the close of this century the ladies adopted the strange and unsightly gorget to cover their throats, thus still more closely adapting the aspect of their own head-gear and its accessories to the mail coifs and the helms of their martial lords. The beautiful effigy of Eleanor of Castile, which rests upon a massive plate of bronze gilt and diapered with the armorial castles and lions of Castile and Leon, is remarkable as well for the dignified simplicity of the costume as for the sweet expression of the countenance. Secured by a narrow band which she holds in her left hand, the queen’s long and ample mantle for the most part envelops her person, disclosing only the upper part of her wide-sleeved tunic and the close-fitting sleeves of the dress worn beneath it; she wears neither wimple nor coverchef, but allows her luxuriant hair to fall in rich waves from beneath her diadem upon her shoulders.

Century XIV. —The royal attire represented in the two halves of this century in the effigies of Edward II. and Edward III. is a tunic (the under-tunic not being visible) descending to the feet and having tight sleeves; a dalmatic, open in front to midway between the knees and the waist, of the same length; and a long flowing mantle, secured across the breast by a broad band of rich workmanship. The dalmatic of the father, who is crowned and in his ungloved hands holds a sceptre and an orb, has full sleeves reaching only to the elbows, but prolonged in broad lappets of moderate length, while that of the son has its sleeves tight and but little shorter than those of his tunic. In both cases the mantle, covering the shoulders but not drawn across the chest or covering any part of the front of the person, falls at the back of the wearer. The boots of Edward III., richly embroidered, are acutely pointed at the toes, but not of extravagant length; the aged monarch is bareheaded, with long flowing hair and beard; his two sceptres have been broken away. One of the crowned statuettes upon the monument of her younger son, John of Eltham, duke of Cornwall, apparently represents Isabelle of France, queen of Edward IL, in a tunic and mantle, having her throat and head enveloped in a combination of a wimple with a gorget, after a fashion equally strange and unbecoming, but which, nevertheless, in her time w as prevalent. This queen, who delighted in splendid extravagance, is recorded to have habitually worn, richly embroidered and adorned with jewels, dresses of cloth of gold or silver, with others of velvet of various colours and of shot taffeta, and with others also of green cloth of Douay and of rose satin. The inventories of wardrobes and jewellery that still exist show, in a significant manner peculiar to themselves, the extent, variety, and unbounded extravagance of the costumes of both sexes, with their costly accessories and ornaments. In strong contrast to the tales thus told, the costume of the effigy of Queen Philippa is simply a gown or tunic, quite tight to the figure and laced down the front; the sleeves tight, traversed from the shoulder onwards by a close-set row of small buttons, and prolonged from the wrists so as partly to cover the hands; and the skirt being very full and falling in rich folds over the feet. A narrow girdle encircles the royal person, adjusted, not as in earlier times somewhat tightly around the waist, but loosely and about the hips, precisely as the military belt had begun to be worn by the other sex. Over this tunic, the only other garment visible, a mantle, falls from the shoulders down the back. The queen’s hair, confined within a reticulated covering of goldsmith's w ork beneath her diadem, is bound by a circlet and made to project prominently on each side of the face. At the close of the century, the effigies of Richard II. and Anne of Bohemia show the same costume to be repeated in the case of both royal personages, the whole being covered with the royal heraldic badges; and the queen’s hair falls unconfined and naturally over her shoulders. Other effigies of ladies of different ranks, notably a fine one of Lady Stapleton at Ingham in Norfolk, give similar examples of the costume worn by the two queens. Established in use early in the century, the display of heraldic insignia blazoned upon articles of dress rose into the highest favour and popularity during the brilliant reign of Edward III., and they also were lavishly adopted in the luxurious times of his grandson. Indeed, with the progress of this century, mediaeval costume both attained to its highest splendour, and also exhibited much of its extreme extravagance. It became the fashion, for example, for both sexes to wear hanging from their sleeves long lappets, sometimes prolongations of the actual sleeves, and at other times mere strips, and their hoods were prolonged in points to correspond with them. Dresses, some very long, others very short, having their edges cut and jagged in a most bizarre manner, often were worn partycoloured, the colours in many cases having been chosen expressly with a view to produce the most vivid contrast; boots and shoes had their pointed toes made twice or even thrice the length of the wearer’s foot; and head-gear, exhibiting no little diversity of fantastic forms, was universally prevalent. The fashions of England corresponded with those of France, though apparently they were not carried here quite to the same excess that they were on the Continent. The singular aim of each sex, not only to emulate the other in the sumptuous style and profuse adornment of their dress, but also to imitate the form and fashion of each other’s attire, obtained in both countries. The consistent adjustment of the knightly surcoats and jupons over armour, enhancing its effect while partly covering it, suggested to the ladies to adopt kirtles or cotes-hardi, that from being merely sleeveless became sideless also. This form of garment, so well adapted for the display of what was worn under it, assumed several varieties of treatment. Sometimes it was little more than the front and back of a jacket, as in fig. 26; and at other times it became a complete dress, with the exception of sides and sleeves, in which case it was either made to fit closely about the person both before and behind, and then was continued to form a loose and flowing skirt of ample proportions and great length, or with a similar skirt the upper part of the dress also hung loosely about the figure, as in fig. 27. In the next century this same dress at times was worn cut off at the knees, so as to leave the lower part of the under-tunic visible as well as its sides and sleeves. This dress constantly was richly guarded and sometimes lined with costly furs, and it generally was also adorned down the front with a continuous series of massive studs or other goldsmiths’ work. It appears also to have been a never-failing usage in connection with this fashion of a sideless kirtle to display the girdle of the undertunic, which rested loosely on the hips, as it passed under the sideless garment both before and behind. Found to have been in use, in the form at first of a long and flowing sleeveless robe or gown, early in the 14th century, this sideless kirtle or cote-hardi continued to enjoy unabated favour for not much less than two centuries. It appears, certainly not later than 1320, in effigies at Bedale, Selby, and Staindrop—the Selby lady having the flowing skirt of her sideless dress blazoned with armorial insignia; in her effigy at Oxford, Lady Montacute is represented in this dress, 1354; and it is repeated in the effigies of Lady Beauchamp, at Worcester, 1384; of Queen Joanna of Navarre, at Canterbury, 1407; of Lady Harcourt, at Stanton Harcourt, 1471; and of the Duchess of Suffolk, at Ewelme, 1474: the two ladies last named, whose husbands were K.G., wear the garter of the order, the former as an armlet and the latter as a bracelet. Still later, 1500, in her beautiful effigy in Westminster Abbey, Elizabeth Arundel, wife of Sir Giles Daubeney, K.G., treasurer to Henry VII., is represented in this same sideless over-tunic which reaches only about to the knees, so displaying the lower part of the long and flowing under-tunic as well as its sides and sleeves. Μ. Viollet-le-Duc has shown the sideless kirtle to have been no less fashionable and no less capable to maintain its position in France, than we possess abundant evidence to prove it to have been in England. The same fashion also prevailed at the same period in other parts of Europe. At Worcester a closely wimpled effigy illustrates in a remarkable manner the usage, at the commencement of the century, to attach small enamelled shields of arms in profusion upon the dresses of ladies of rank, a mode of decoration shown again in a brass at Trotton, 1310. Throughout this century the wimple and coverchef continued to be worn, or the hair was confined within bands of fretwork, or had some light and delicate covering which did not extend to the face and throat. In the second half of the century the hair appears to have been worn partly within the favourite fretwork, and in part falling on the shoulders; the coverchef also then assumed the forms of a variety of caps, and some of the more extravagant head-dresses of the following century began to make their appearance. For protection from the cold and wet the hoodsof mantles always were available, and hats wide in the brim were also worn. The hip-belt was universal. Pocket-holes, into which the hands of the wearers often are represented to have been inserted, are shown to have been made in the outer-tunics and robes. Throughout the era of splendid armour, meu of distinction so constantly are represented in their armour that the typical and specially characteristic male costume of the Middle Ages is commonly considered to have been identified with what in reality ought to be distinguished as the military equipment of the period. Rarely, however, as we see the more accessible and popular of their “counterfeit presentments” in peaceful guise, the warriors of those days when circumstances permitted gladly laid aside basinet and hauberk and panoply of plate, in order to assume some less weighty and uneasy garb. Under the armour close-fitting doublets and hose were worn, made either of leather or of some quilted fabric. When without their armour, the dress of nobles and knights in many respects was assimilated to the garments assumed by them over their armour. The general costume of men of all classes at the same period was closely in accord with the style prevalent with their contemporaries of exalted rank, the essential distinctions of different classes being comparative costliness and splendour of adornment. It will be observed that garments fitting closely to the person were in constant use, as is well exemplified in fig. 28, and also such others as were Oriental in their length and flowing looseness. Early in the 14 th century two· or three surcoats were worn over the armour; but later the short jupon, generally jagged at the edges and sleeveless, but sometimes plain and having sleeves reaching only to the elbows, superseded them, when a similar jupon made of some rich material and often having a hood, was adopted to be worn with a hip-belt, without the armour. The hip-belt, as was the case with the other sex who borrowed it from the men, was universal.

The hose, shoes, boots or buskins, always sharply pointed, became very long as the century advanced. Rows of buttons, also, some of them very small and closely set, were in great favour. Heraldic devices, assumed as military insignia, became the favourite ornaments of the dress of peace. The military camail, again, the representative of the mail-coif of earlier times, found a parallel in the hood when resting on the shoulders, and in the cape which so frequently was associated with the peaceful attire of this century. See fig. 28, which also gives a characteristic illustration of the prolonged sleeve-lappets that still held their ground with resolute tenacity. Six of the original beautiful bronze statuettes, representing two of the daughters and four of the sons of Edward HI., which still remain in situ on the south side of that monarch’s monument in Westminster Abbey, form a group so happily illustrative of both male and female costume in the second half of the 14th century before it had degenerated into the extravagancies of the reign of Richard 11., that it has appeared desirable here to introduce the accompanying sketches of the entire group (figs. 29-34). One of these statuettes (fig. 29) is especially interesting, since it is a contemporary portrait of the Black Prince when he was not armed, which consequently may be agreeably associated with his noble armed effigy upon his own monument at Canterbury. The doublet and hose, doubtless worn by the Black Prince under his voluminous mantle with its deeply jagged lower border, is effectively shown in the statuettes of two of his brothers, Lionel, duke of Clarence (fig. 30), who also wears his mantle; and a younger brother (fig. 31), not now to be identified in consequence of his shield of arms having long been lost. The effigy of the fourth brother (fig, 32), enveloped like the Black Prince in his mantle, has also lost the armorial shield which would have declared his name and title. With the costume of these royal brothers may be compared the habit of a civilian, who lived at the same time with them, as it is shown in his monumental brass at Shottesbroke (fig. 35). The corresponding French costume of a few years earlier, which continued in fashion till the close of the century, is well exemplified in figs. 28 and 36. The effigies of the two royal sisters (figs. 33, 34) speak for themselves as expressive and authoritative typical illustrations of the female dress of their era in its simplest and most characteristic forms, as the entire group in which they appear attests the dignified simplicity which the artists of the Middle Ages, with such excellent taste, have shown that they held to be appropriate for the costume, in itself always accurate f.nd historically time, to be represented in monumental sculpture. Without introducing much of actual novelty, except in the case of some of the head-dresses which from this time continued in use under the fourth, fifth, and sixth Henries, the concluding quarter of the 14th century was distinguished—as we learn from contemporary illuminations—by the pervading love of lavish extravagance in dress in all classes, and by the excess to which the more fanciful devices and fashions of earlier times were carried. Thus, the jagged borders of tunics and mantles became more than ever fantastic; the tunics and mantles themselves attained to a larger size, and the hanging sleeves commonly attached to them drooped to the very ground. Hoods, from being merely pointed, were prolonged in pipe-like extensions ( “liripipes ”), and the points of boots and shoes were made sharper, and the boots and shoes were made longer than ever. The singularly quaint and bizarre usage of making dresses party - coloured, the colours being selected in the majority of instances with a view to decided contrast, derived doubtless from heraldic impalements and quarterings with fields of different tinctures, and carried out in the livery colours assumed by the retainers and dependants of great houses,—a fashion which had established itself during the palmy heraldic days of Edward III., —became general in the reign of Richard 11., and then it was carried out in every variety of’the details, accessories, and ornaments of costume.

Century X V. — Remarkable for a sustained succession of important changes in armour, and also from the fact that after about 1405, and until about 1475, the panoply of steel was worn uncovered byanysurcoat or jupon, this turbulent century also witnessed a variety of changes in costume—changes that maintained a general uniformity throughout the greater part of Europe—which in their turn led in the succeeding century to the equally general establishment of the Tudor fashions. Heraldic devices continued to constitute favourite accessories and ornaments of dress, and in no slight degree determined both its character and its aspect. To the crests of the knightly helms, and to the contoises or scarves and the mantlings displayed from them by the knights, may be assigned, as being the sources whence they were suggested, the more extravagant and quaint varieties of the female head-gear which prevailed at this period. And, in like manner, the “livery colours” of the nobles and other personages of distinction, in trod need during the preceding ςentury, together with their armorial badges, all of them worn by their partisans, adherents, and dependants, imparted a heraldic character to the costume of the middle and even of the humbler classes. The only royal monumental effigies of this century are those of Henry IV. and of his second wife, Joanna of Navarre, at Canterbury. The king’s dalmatic, of ample proportions and ungirt by any girdle, falls to his feet, completely covering his tunic, except at the wrists of its tight sleeves, which have an under row of small buttons set in contact; over these sleeves are the large and open sleeves of the dalmatic itself, which is remarkable from having at each side a very large opening to give access to the pockets of the tunic. About the shoulders and covering the chest is a cape or tippet; and, over all, there is a mantle, its hood adjusted about the neck of the wearer, which is secured by a broad and rich band, with morses, cords, and tassels. Upon his head the first Lancastrian king wears a crown of elaborate splendour. The effigy of Queen Joanna, from which, as also is the case with the companion effigy of her royal husband, the hands and the greater part of the arms have been broken away, represents her attired in a close-fitting tunic with a narrow very rich hip-girdle, under a long sleeveless and sideles3 cote-hardi, cut low and fitting tightly in the body, but having a loose, long and flowing skirt, and adorned with a row of rich circular studs down the front. The mantle, which falls over the back of the figure and is not gathered up at the arms, is secured by a cordon attached to two lozenge-shaped studs. As a necklace the queen wears the Lancastrian collar of SS.; and her hair, which is plaited in bands within golden network, is surmounted by a truly beautiful crown. Thus the costume of this royal lady shows no change from the ruling fashion of the previous century. At this same time female dresses were worn made full, and either gathered into a kind of close collar about the throat, or having a broad collar falling over the shoulders, their sleeves very large and full and sometimes quite open, while at other times they also were gathered in (but not closely) at the wrists; these dresses, often having a row of small buttons from the throat downwards, were so adjusted by a belt as to have very short waists. At this period also, and till the middle of the century, the tunic commonly worn by men, with the exception of being shorter, in form was almost identical with the full-sleeved kirtle also in common use by the other sex. Among characteristic examples of the ordinary costumes of the first half of the 15th century are effigies, some sculptured and some engraved, at Chipping Campden, Willoughby, Northleach, Kingston-on-Thames, Great Tew, Highaιr Ferrers, and Bedington. In the third quarter of the century fc11β male dress in general use underwent but little change, the very long tunics of earlier times still remaining in favour jut the female kirtles are seldom seen with very full sleeves, tl)β sleeves of the under-tunic being continued in the form of mittens so as partly to cover the hands, the outer sleeves ending in cuffs that are turned back. While the costume of the commonality thus was at any rate comparatively simple and sober, throughout the turbulent period that succeeded the death of Henry V. till the establishment of the Tudors, it would appear as if the fierce excitement and the terrible vicissitudes of a prolonged civil war had impelled the nobility and others of the upper classes in England—encouraged in such a course, as it would seem, and still further stimulated to pursue it by the contemporaneous fashions of France—to have sought a not altogether inconsistent kind of relief in both the revival and the invention of almost every conceivable extravagance and absurdity in dress and personal ornament. Long and loose robes having immense drooping sleeves had as their contemporaries close-fitting tunics reaching down not quite to the knees, with others of looser make which descended midway between the knee and the ankle, and also with jerkins cut short only a few inches below the hips, made very full, and gathered in with a belt about the waist. Of these tunics and jerkins the sleeves assumed an endless variety of form and decoration, being sometimes made to fit tightly, but more generally being large and open, and at their extremities either jagged or bordered with fur. These large sleeves enabled the wearers to display the sleeves of their under garments, and in so doing to emulate the ladies with their sideless cote-hardis and kirtles. Mantles of the richest materials and splendidly adorned, which were made to reach about to the knees, were worn as parts of the regular dress. The half-boots or shoes distinguished as pouïaines continued to be long and very sharply pointed; and men of rank and fashion actually walked about in clogs, pointed like their poulaines, and exceeding them in length by several inches. The excesses in attire characteristic of this period culminated (in every acceptation of that word) in the female head-dresses, that appear literally to have exhausted the inventive faculties both of the ladies themselves and of those persons who ministered to their tastes and wishes. From their more decidedly characteristic features, some of the more popular of these strange varieties of head-gear have been distinguished as the “horned,” the “mitre, ' the “steeple” —in France known as the “hennin,—” and the “butterfly ’ (figs. 37-40). Examples of all these head-dresses in their various modifications of contour, size, accessories, adornment, and adjustment.

abound in the monuments and illuminated MSS. of both France and England; also, as in the general character of the costume of each era, the same fashions of head-gear are found to have prevailed about the same period in other European countries. The most remarkable example of the “horned” head-dress that has been observed cither in France or England, is represented in the effigy of Beatrice of Portugal, who married one of the earls of Arundel in the time of Henry V., which remains in good preservation in Arundel church in Sussex; fig. 37, from the brass to Lady Hals-ham in the same county, shows a simpler and more moderate form of the same head-dress. Fig. 38 is drawn from a portrait of Elizabeth of York when young, in stained glass at Little Malvern. The “hennin,” fig. 39, is a French example, reproduced from the always effective pages of Viollet-le-Duc. The “butterfly,” shown in fig. 40, is 'another example in which the type of a particular headgear is exhibited with no less of moderation than of accuracy. In every case, to these head-dresses veils, generally of ample proportions and often of great length or depth, -and always of some light and delicate material, were attached, and from the actual structure worn in connection with the hair upon the head they either were expanded by wires or were permitted to fall drooping freely.

Extravagancies in head-gear, however, were not restricted to the fashions of one sex only; on the contrary, at this same period, among other strange eccentricities and fancies, a kind of cap, in form somewhat resembling a turban, was introduced and generally worn by men, which on one side had attached to it a cluster of very large bows or puffs (the prototype of the “cockade” of later times), while on the other side a broad band or scarf of the same material as the cluster of bows hung down to the ground, or even trailed along upon it, unless it should be the pleasure of the wearer to tuck it up in his girdle, or to wind it round either his head or his throat and shoulders. This strange male head-gear, of which a French example is given in fig. 41, showing the upper part of the scarf when hanging down, often was treated as a hood for occasional use only, when it rested on one of the shoulders of the wearer, its cluster of bows drooping over his back, and the long band or lappet pendant in front of his person, his head, meanwhile, if not bare, being covered with a cap, round or square or peaked, or by a brimless hat adorned with an upright feather and a jewel. In the 13 th and 14th centuries the knightly surcoats and jupons, worn over armour, had their counterparts in the robes and tunics of peaceful attire; and so, in like manner, the shortened tunics and still shorter jerkins, that were in common use when the 15th century was bringing the great civil struggle to its termination in the accession of the Tudors, may be considered to have been suggested by the short “tabard” with its short and full sleeves and its heraldic blazonry, at that time worn by men-at-arms over their plate-armour. At the same time and till the end of the century, the long tunics still in use, which some years earlier had been slit up in front and had their full sleeves somewhat gathered in at the wrists, were made still longer, and had collars either closefitting or open and falling back; they also were made open in front throughout their entire length, and their loose sleeves were of a uniform size from the shoulder to the wrist. At this same time also rosaries, and gypcières or purses, were worn attached to their girdles by both sexes. About the year 1480 the long and acutely pointed poulaines were superseded by coverings for the feet of both sexes which exhibited the opposite extreme of being short, very broad, and rounded or sometimes almost square at the toes. In the concluding quarter of this century, the super-tunic or gown of the ladies, made to fit closely and having a long and flowing skirt, the sleeves also close-fitting and with cuffs either turned back or drawn over the hands, was open above the short waist, the collar falling back over the shoulders and showing the under-tunic either carried up to fit closely at the throat, or sometimes cut square and low. Rich and broad necklaces were worn, and belts of goldsmiths’ work with long pendants. The ‘ ‘ homed” head-dress became either sharper in its points, or considerably less pointed and more graceful. The “butterfly ’’ headdress increased in favour, and was worn with the hair drawn back into an enriched caul or cap. About 1490 an angular or “diamond” head-dress superseded the ‘ ‘ butterfly; ’’ i t had a ridge, after the manner of a gabled roof of a house, over the head, and forming an angle above the centre of the forehead, from which it descended with a slope on each side of the face; then, another angle having been formed slightly below each eye, this head-gear, which inclosed the back of the head in a species of cap, was continued as a broad lappet falling over each shoulder in front of the person of the wearer; occasionally, also, two other similar lappets depended behind (see fig. 42).

Early Painted Glass.— Upon the costume, always without doubt in a signal degree characteristic of the period in which it was executed, of the various figures introduced by mediaeval artists into their numerous pictures executed in glass, Winston has made the following concise remarks :—

Early English Gothic, 1175 to 1300.—“Robes, whether lay or ecclesiastical, are generally short, in male figures hardly reaching to the ankles, and in females scarcely more than touching the ground. The female dress usually consists of a close garment with tight sleeves and a loose robe and shoes; the head is sometimes bare, but more commonly draped. The male dress, usually appropriated to dignified persons, also consists of a close garment confined at the waist, and furnished sometimes with tight and sometimes with loose sleeves, a robe or mantle, and long hose, to which is often added a cap greatly resembling the Phrygian bonnet. The costume of ordinary persons is generally a short tunic, confined at the waist and reaching nearly to the knees, and sometimes a short cloak; when this is used, the legs of the figure are generally represented encased in hose, or in a loose sort of stocking setting in folds about the leg, and with or without shoes.”

Decorated English Gothic, 1300 to 1380.—“The αrapenes of this period are much more flowing and ample than those of the last; and in ecclesiastical and female figures the robe is generally long and envelops the feet. The secular emale costume usually consists of a garment fitting tightly to the arms and body, and having a wide long skirt trailing along the ground; upon it sometimes are depicted the armorial bearings of the wearer. A cloak or mantle is often loosely thrown over it. The wimple is a frequent adjunct to the head-dress, and the hair is usually plaited down on each side of the face and inclosed in a net or cowl. The ordinary costume of dignified laymen consists of a long robe and loose cloak,—the hair and beard being arranged in loose and wavy locks. The usual secular dress is a short jerkin or tunic reaching about half-way down the thighs, and tight hose and shoes, upon which model the armour of this period was formed.”

Perpendicular English Gothic, 1380 to about 1550.— “Greater repose was given to the figures in this than in either of the former styles, and the draperies are generally disposed in very broad and grand folds. The female dress in general consists either of a close-bodied dress with long skirts and tight sleeves, or of a looser dress with sleeves wide at the shoulders and tight at the wrists. A cloak is often added, upon which armorial bearings, when used, are emblazoned more frequently than on the other garment. The variety of the head-dresses is great, especially towards and during the reign of Edward IV. The secular male costume, until almost the end of Edward IV.’s reign, appears usually to have consisted of a furred gown of tunic-like form, reaching rather below the knees, slit nearly half-way up the middle, and confined round the waist with a girdle; it had either wide sleeves narrowing toward the wrist, or small at the shoulder and wide at the wrist like those of a surplice. The legs were inclosed in pointed-toed hose. I he hair, until the latter part of the reign of Edward IV., appears to have been cropped closely all round, and after this time to have been cut straight across the forehead, but allowed to grow long behind and at the sides of the face, and to have been smoothed down like a club. In the reign of Henry VII. long furred gowns reaching to the feet and obtusely-toed shoes were used; they continued in fashion during the next reign also.”

Century XVI.—“We find,” says Μ. Paul Lacroix, writing specially with reference to the costume prevalent in France, “that a distinct separation between ancient and modern dress took place as early as the 16th century. In fact, our present fashions may be said to have taken their origin from about that time. It was during this century that men adopted clothes closely fitting to the body,—overcoats with tight sleeves, felt hats with more or less wide brims, and closed boots and shoes. The women also wore their dresses closely fitting to the figure, with tight sleeves, low crowned hats, and richly trimmed petticoats. These garments, which differ altogether from those of antiquity, constitute, as it were, the common type from which have arisen the endless varieties of modem male and female dress; and there is no doubt that fashion thus will continually be moving backwards and forwards from period to period, sometimes returning to its original model, and sometimes departing from it.” Before arriving, however, at the useful and generally consistent and becoming dress of the present day, the fashions of both male and female attire had to pass on from the 16th century through a series of changes in every τespect no less strange and extravagant, and yet always more or less directly tending in the same direction, than those which the earlier centuries had witnessed and then had carried away with themselves. And even now more than a little remains to be accomplished, before the ordinary costume in general use can be considered to have realized what ought to be its true aim—the most perfect attainable applicability, that is, to the condition and the requirements of the wearer, due but not excessive attention at the same time being bestowed upon appropriate effectiveness of appearance.

At the commencement of this century in England, there are the royal effigies of Henry VII. and his queen, Elizabeth of York. The king himself is represented as having his person entirely enveloped in a loose fur-lined robe or gown of ample size, reaching from its close fur collar about his neck to his feet, and so adjusted as to disclose but little of the garments worn beneath it. On his head he has the square cap that came into use and was generally worn during his reign. The queen wears a richly adorned angular head-dress (fig. 42), from beneath which her hair falls unconfined over her shoulders; and the adjustment of her royal mantle is such as to display the upper part of her tunic, which is cut square and does not quite reach to her throat. The countess of Richmond, the mother of Henry VII., in her effigy appears wrapped from head to foot in a loose mantle, her tunic having plain and tight sleeves; and on her head she has a plain angular headdress with a plaited wimple, over which the lappets fall. This costume may be regarded to have been designed, to denote the widowhood of this four times married lady. Thus it appears that in their costume the effigies of these royal personages exhibit none of the distinctive insignia of royalty, and consequently they may he accepted as typical of the costume of their era. Neither of Henry VIII. nor of any one of his queens is there any monumental effigy; but this deficiency is more than compensated by the portraits painted by Holbein, made familiar to all by engravings; while other artists have left no less characteristic pictures representing personages of different ranks and classes who at the same period lived in France and England. Armour, which in the course of this century gradually became less esteemed for purposes of defence, and in a corresponding degree came to be more and more regarded as but little more than a splendid component or accessory of dress, in its form and aspect was closely assimilated to certain garments made of textile materials and in fashion among the armour-wearing classes. Much of curious and suggestive mutual illustration, accordingly, is to be obtained by a comparison between the aspect of a man of rank of this century in his armour, and the same person when in his customary attire. In the time of the first of the Tudor princes men wore two distinct varieties of dress. The one was a long and loose gown, having wide open sleeves, girt about the waist with a belt or scarf, above which it was open, its broad collar falling back over the shoulders; thus an under-tunic or vest was displayed, that in its turn allowed the shirt to be visible both at the throat and the wrists; the hose were tight, and the shoes very broad at the toes. The other form of dress consisted of a short tunic or vest, tight and close-fitting as the hose, worn under an open doublet with long sleeves made throughout very large and loose; hats, low in the crown and broad in the brim and having plumes of feathers, were either worn on the head over a small and closely-fitting cap or coisl or they were carried hanging from over one of the shoulders down the back. The angular cap represented in the royal effigy also was constantly worn, and the cap (fig. 41) with the cluster of bows and the long pendant sash continued in use. Under Henry VI11., in men’s attire, from midway between the knee and the hip, or from the knee itself, downwards to the wide and easy shoes, all was tight, while about the upper part of the lower J i r∏bs and the body all was loose, capacious, and broad, the entire costume at the same time being distinguished by decided stiffness and formality. At the line of junction between the tight and the loose portions oi the dress, the trunk hose, at the time in question universally worn, were gathered in closely either at the middle of the thigh or at the knee, and then they were widely puffed out as they rose to meet the jerkin or jacket, which was open in front and reached only to the hips. These jerkins sometimes were closed at the throat, when a small falling white collar or band was worn; or the jerkin was spread open to display a sleeveless vest, and an embroidered shirt having large sleeves and small ruffles at the wrists. The doublets, or coats, worn over the other garments were very short and very full, an especial object being to give to the figure, and particularly about the shoulders, the appearance of as much breadth and squareness as possible. A cloak, as short as the doublet, was suspended from the shoulders, rather for display than for use; the headcovering was a round cap, low and flat, adorned with a jewel and a single small waving feather; and, attached to the belt, with a gypcière or purse, a dagger was carried horizontally in front of the wearer. The sword, when worn, was a rapier. It was at this period a peculiar and universally prevalent fashion, varying in degrees of eccentricity and extravagance, to slash the garments, so as either simply to show glimpses of some under-dress, or to have some different material of another colour drawn out in puffs through the slashes. This slashing and puffing was extended even to the broad shoes, the tight hose alone being exempted. Besides being frequently slashed and striped, the trunk hose were habitually made with a succession of alternate gatherings-in and puffings-out. All this display, made regardless of true taste and solely in order to accomplish as much of display as possible, naturally was attended with a prevalent indulgence in the use of rich and costly fabrics and splendid decorations. Of King Henry himself it is recorded, at his famous meeting with Francis I. in 1540, that he was apparelled in “a garment of cloth-of-silver damask, ribbed with cloth-of-gold, as thick as might be; the garment was large and plaited very thick, of such shape and make as was marvellous to behold.” The French king was attired in a splendour quite equal to that of his royal English guest; and the nobles and courtiers of both countries took care to emulate their sovereigns in their attire, and in wearing several gorgeous costumes, all of them in the same style of fashion, every day. The costume of Henry II. of France, represented in the woodcut, fig. 43, from the original portrait by Clonet, is a characteristic example of the fashion prevalent in the middle of the 16th century, and it also shows how close was the resemblance between the fashions of male dress at that time in France and England. The costume of the middle and the humbler classes at this era, as naturally would be expected, bore a decided general resemblance to the more elaborate and costly attire of the dignified and wealthy of their contemporaries. They wore the same short close jerkin, the short doublet often with lappet sleeves, the short cloak, the flat round cap plainly made from simple materials, and the tight leggings and broad shoes with the puffed upper hose. Or, instead of the short cloak, they wore a long gown, furred, and with hanging sleeves, sometimes pierced midway for the arms to pass through; a coif tied under the chin also was commonly worn under the flat cap. The doublets of the men of the Elizabethan portion of this century, which were made long-breasted and padded so as to fit the body tightly, were carried down in front to a prolonged peak, and so they closely resembled both the stomachers of the ladies and the breastplates of the military. The fashion of these grotesque doublets, apparently originally Venetian, travelled to England by way of France. The hose, if of the English “trunk type, were puffed out immediately from the middle of the thigh, where they met the tight leggings or stockings that were carried up beneath them, as in fig. 44; but the French and Venetian hose, also in. fashion in England, swelled out gradually from the knee, and the stockings sometimes were drawn over them. These dresses constantly were puffed and slashed, padded and banded throughout, one shstS slash being carried down the entire length of each sleeve of the doublet. The contemporary portrait of the French king, Hem y III., about 1575, from which the woodcut (fig. 45) has been drawn, shows very distinctly the tapering French hose and the long pea < e doublet, with the treatment of those garments characteristic oi t ιa period. Very large circular ruffs, in their form and adjustment differing little, if at all, from those worn by the other sex, formed essential features of the male attire in the reign of Elizabeth, when very short cloaks also continued to be worn. At the same period, long gowns guarded with fur, having open collars falling back, and their sleeves comparatively tight and having puffs at the shoulders, were in common use, as were caps and hats greatly varying in form, colour, material, and adornment. It must be added, that amidst all this extravagance and eccentricity of attire, there also existed a taste for simplifying the fashions of the time so as to render them at least comparatively graceful and becoming. In connection also with the costume of the 16th century, it will be kept in remembrance, as one of the most decided innovations ever introduced into male dress, that two distinct coverings were given to the lower limbs when the hose were worn in part tight and plain, and partly puffed out, slashed, and embroidered. The term “hose” then wει applied, by way of distinction, to the upper portion, while to the lower the name of “stocking” was assigned. Towards the close of the century the hose of that period also became “breeches; ' ’ and so, in process of time, the old and long-used word “hose” came to be retained only as an equivalent for “stockings.” Early in the 16 th century noble ladies and gentlewomen introduced various modifications of the universal angular head-dress. Their dresses, fitting closely about the figure, and with long skirts open in front to display the under-dress, were made low and cut square about the neck; their sleeves, tight at the shoulder, suddenly became very large and open, disclosing the puffed sleeves of the under-dress; sometimes, however, these dresses were worn high, with short waists, and a small falling collar. Necklaces and numerous other ornaments of jewellery were in general use; chains also, with objects of various kinds for use or ornament attached to them, hung down from the universal girdles, or the girdles themselves had one long Îiendant end that was elaborately enriched. By country ladies and >y the wives and daughters of citizens a similar style of dress, somewhat simplified, was generally adopted. Somewhat later, the sleeves of dresses had puffs at the shoulders, and when the dresses were made open above the girdle, a “partiet,” or kind of habitshirt, was worn beneath them and carried up to the throat; the head-dress at the same time, while generally retaining an angular contour, was small and made to fit almost closely to the head. At this same time, the general resemblance which all along may be traced between the dresses of the two sexes became universally decided. After the accession of Queen Elizabeth in 1558, the well-known costume, associated with herself from about the middle till the close of her reign, gradually became established. Of the long, peaked, and tight stomachers of the ladies, and of the padded and quilted doublets of the men, it might be said with equal truth that each garment was a parody of the other. Ruffs, often of exaggerated amplitude and of a painfully severe stiffness, were worn by both sexes; sometimes open in front and rising like an expanded fan around the throat and head, more generally they completely encircled the throat, and rested, nearly at right angles to it, on the shoulders. In their puffings and. slashings the sleeves of the dresses of both sexes were alike; nor was almost a corresponding resemblance wanting between the trunk hose and the “petticoatbreeches” of one sex, and the skirts of the kirtles and gowns and the veritable petticoats that were made to expand by enormous wheel-like “farthingales,” as in fig. 46, from the hips of the other sex. Ornaments of every kind abounded. The richest and most showy fabrics in endless variety were in great request, and were worn with abundance of lace, feathers, and embroidery. The monumental effigy of Elizabeth herself, the last memorial of its class commemorative of an English sovereign, represents the queen as attired at all points in the characteristic fashion, by herself set to her time, and identified with her name; and the sister effigy of Queen Mary Stuart, like that of Elizabeth, the work of James I*, and in Westminster Abbey, gives another, but a somewhat simpler and a much mðre graceful, example of the same costume—the queen of Scots wearing the cap that bears her name. As at other periods, the general female costume in the Elizabethan era was a modification of the dress of the court, the circumstances and position of different classes and individuals determining the degree of resemblance.

In taking a retrospective glance at the numerous changes in costume which had taken place from ancient times to the 16th century, Μ. Lacroix remarks that “among European nations during the Middle Ages we find there to have been but one common standard of fashion, which varied from time to time according to the particular customs of each country, and in accordance also with the peculiarities of each race. In Italy, for example, dress always maintained a certain character of grandeur, ever recalling the fact that the influence of antiquity had not been altogether lost. In Germany and Switzerland garments generally had a heavy and massive appearance, and in Holland still more so. England uniformly studied a kind of instinctive elegance and propriety. It is a curious fact that Spain invariably partook of the heaviness peculiar to Germany, either because the Gothic element still prevailed there, or that the Walloon fashions had an especial attraction to her, owing to associations and general usage. France· was then, as she is now, fickle and capricious, fantastical and wavering, not indeed from indifference, but because she always was ready to borrow from every quarter anything that pleased her. She, however, never failed to place her own stamp upon whatever she adopted, so making any fashion essentially French, even though she had only just borrowed it from Spain, England, Germany, or Italy. In all these countries we have seen, and still see, entire provinces adhering to some ancient custom, causing them to differ altogether in character from the rest of the nation. This is simply owing to the fact of the fashions having become obsolete in the neighbouring places; for every local costume faithfully and rigorously preserved in any community at a distance from the centre of political action or government, must originally have been brought there by the nobles of the country. Thus, the head-dress of Anne of Brittany (1498-1514) is still that of the peasant-women of Penhoet and Labrevack; and the tall conical ’ lιennin' (fig. 39) of Isabel of Bavaria (1400) is still the head-dress of Normandy. v With the view “briefly to indicate the last connecting link between modern fashions and those of former periods,” the same writer proceeds to point out how, “under Francis I. (1515— 1547), the costumes adopted from Italy became almost stationary. Under Henry II. (1547-1559), and especially after the death of that prince, the taste for frivolities made immense progress, and the style of dress in ordinary use seemed day by day to lose the few traces of dignity which it previously had possessed. The fashion of ruffs had been introduced into France by Catherine de’ Medici (1560); and at the beginning of the 17th century that of small collars. Dresses, tight at the waist, began to be made very full round the hips by means of large padded rolls; and these were still more enlarged by a monstrous arrangement of padded whalebone and steel, which subsequently became the ridiculous ‘paniers* that were worn almost down to the present century. Under the last of the Valois (1500) men’s dress was short, the jacket or jerkin was pointed and trimmed round with small peaks; the velvet cap was trimmed with aigrettes; the beard was pointed; a pearl hung from the left ear; and a small cloak or mantle, which reached only to the waist, was carried on the shoulder. The use of gloves made of scented leather became universal. Ladies wore-their dresses long, very full, and of costly materials, little or no change in these respects having taken place during the reign of Henry IV. (1589-1610). At this period the men’s high hose were made longer and fuller, especially in Spain and the Low Countries, and the fashion of large soft boots, made of doeskin or of black morocco, became universal. For a long time, even in the towns, the costume of the bourgeois was almost unchanged. Never having adopted either the tight-fitting hose or the balloon breeches, they wore an easy jerkin, a large cloak, and a felt hat, which the English made conical and with a broad brim. Towards the beginning of the 17th century, the high hose, which were worn by the northern nations profusely trimmed, were transformed into the ‘culottes,’ which were full and open at the knees. A division thus was suddenly made between the lower and the upper parts of the hose, as if the garment which covered the lower limbs had been cut in two, and then garters were necessarily adopted. Almost throughout Europe, the felt hat became a cap taking the exact form of the head, and having a wide and flat brim turned up on one side. To boots and shoes high heels were added, in place of those which before had been flat and had been accompanied with single soles. Two centuries later a terrible social agitation took place in Europe, after which male attire became plain, ungraceful,.

mean, and more paltry than ever; whereas female dress, the fashions of which were perpetually changing, became graceful and elegant, though often approaching the extravagant and absurd.”

Century X V^1I. — During the reign of the first Stuart sovereign of Great Britain the fashions of dress, which under his Tudor predecessor had culminated without undergoing any changes sufficiently marked to give to them a fresh character, attained to even an exaggerated extravagance. Notwithstanding the absence of any effigy of him, we are familiar with the personal appearance and costume of James I. and VI., and in his costume we possess a true type of the dress prevalent during his reign. The long-waisted, peaked, and close-fitting slashed doublets of the days of Elizabeth, still longer in the waist, more acutely peaked, and as far as was possible more closely fitting than ever, habitually were kept in shape by means of stays worn under them. The trunk-hose mercilessly slashed, became larger than before, padded garments being specially congenial to the disposition and temperament of the king; and, having attained to a balloon shape, they tapered down to the knees of the wearer, where they were secured by sashes tied in bows at the side. Cloaks and ruffs remained unchanged. Hats came into fashion that were tall in the crown, slightly conical in shape, with a narrow brim turned up on one side, and adorned with a jewel and a single feather, or with a rich band and a plume. Large rosettes were worn on the shoes, which retained their bιoad shape, and often had high red heels. Rapiers, worn without any belt crossing the person, were narrow and very long in the blade. In like manner, the female dresses underwent but little change, except in having their λvorst features and especially t heir farthingales, with the lavish profusion of their tasteless adornment, intensified. It was at this time, however, that the custom of painting the face began to prevail; and while ruffs or bands of immoderate size stretched forth from the ladies’ necks, they wore the front of their dresses cut away immediately beneath them in a manner that exposed the bosom in defiance of all modesty. Less fashionable ladies, between 1615 and 1625, discarded the tight and pointed stomacher and farthingale, and wore over an easy jerkin and ample petticoat, a loose gown open in front, made high to meet the ruff, and with long hanging sleeves through which the tight sleeves of the jerkin were displayed; or they followed the fashion of their time, modified and without its more salient absurdities. The same may be said of the men who were content in some degree to follow the fashion, while altogether repudiating being leaders of it. With the costume of the reign of Charles I., on the whole more sober, and in more than a few respects really elegant, Vandyck has made the world happily familiar. At first the ruffs were retained, their size only having been diminished; but all traces both of the angular head-dress and of the Mary Stuart cap, and with them of the farthingale, disappeared; and after a while the ruffs followed then. The ladies wore the very full sleeves of their dresses tied in at the elbows as well as gathered in at the wrists; their bodies, tightly fitting, sometimes were long and pointed, and at other times not longer than the natural waist; the long petticoat of some rich material was displayed beneath a loose and open robe or gown, that was gathered up and had short loose sleeves with deep white cuffs, and a deep falling collar or “band" was fastened closely at their throat; or they wore large kerchiefs over their bodies, and gowns having flowing skirts and comparatively tight sleeves. Coverchefs or hoods also were worn, from which descended long veils, often of such ample proportions as to resemble mantles. Patches at this time began to make their appearance; and notwithstanding their intrinsic absurdity and their strange faculty for disfigurement, they continued in fashion throughout the century. Men’s doublets or coats, the true prototypes of the frock-coats of the present day, having full sleeves made tight at the wrists, w ere rather longer and worn buttoned from the waist (where they showed the shirt) upwards to the falling white band; plain white cuffs, sometimes supeιseded by others of lace, were also worn. The trunk-hose became loose breeches of uniform width aud open at the knees, where they were fringed or had a border of lace, and were fastened with sash-like garters; the stockings were tight; the shoes had large roses; and the felt hat was large and wide in the brim. By the men of fashion this costume, in itself really worthy of decided commendation, was easily made to assume a fantastic aspect, by the adoption of rich and variously coloured fabrics and the addition of lace, bunches of ribbon, feathers, embroidery, and gold lace, and numerous “points” or laces to fasten the breeches to the stockings, with boots long in the foot, and having tops of enormous width that were turned down and lined with lace. These gentlemen, who delighted in having long hair, also wore or more frequently carried on their left arm a short cloak; and they were provided with basket-hilted rapiers having blades of great length. Besides rejecting all bright colours, and every kind of ornamental accessory, a very different class of their contemporaries reduced this same costume to its simplest possible conditions, thus contrasting one extreme with another most opposed to it. These men, who to their closely-cropped hair owed their famous designation as “Roundheads,” with their sombre and plain garments wore their felt hats of excessive height, with a great breadth of brim, and perfectly plain. The buff-coats, adopted at this period as parts of the military uniform, conformed in their general character to the doublets worn as ordinary dress. While retaining the characteristic features of the fashions of their times, the dresses of the female members of the “Roundhead’’ section of the English community were made with the plainest simplicity—a simplicity, however, which the taste and ingenuity of the wearers rarely failed to render graceful and becoming. On his restoration, Charles II. brought with him to England the fashions of dress with which he had been familiar in France; and they suited -well both his own character and that irresistible and widespread reaction from the stern and yet manly gloom of the Protectorate that burst out into a frenzy of national recklessness. Shortly after the king’s return, indeed, and for some little time afterthe re-establishment of the monarchy, in the families of graver citizens a quiet style of dress, not unlike what had been prevalent for several years, continued in use by both sexes. Men wore plain doublets of moderate length, full breeches slightly ornamented at the knees, large bands, shoes tied over the instep in bows of moderate size, and loose cloaks having long open sleeves; pointed beards and moustaches continued to be worn also, and under their felt hats the men retained the coifs of past times, or they covered tìieir heads with coifs or caps only. Plain and in the body closely fitting, the ample skirts of the ladies’ dresses, open in front to display an equally unpretending under-dress, occasionally were partly covered by a no less plain apron; their bands or collars, fastened in front with formal bows, were very largo and generally quite plain; and their close hoods they wore tied under the chin, beneath flowing veils or mantles. The very different style of costume which Charles himself had learned to wear at the court of Louis XII. of France, and which he speedily taught his own subjects to assume, consisted of a comparatively long and loose doublet richly laced and embroidered, having large and puffed out sleeves turned back a little below the elbow, leaving the lower arm to be covered by the full sleeves of the shirt with their lace ruffles at the wrists. Under this doublet was a vest, sleeveless but otherwise resembling it, which was left open at the waist; in their turn, from beneath the vest the breeches displayed their expanded width, with their ornamental bunches of ribbon above the knees and lace ruffles below them. A falling band of the richest lace enveloped the throat, and was loosely tied witlfan equally rich scarf of which the ends hung down over the vest; an enormous periwig superseded the natural hair, its curls falling in abundance over the shoulders, the beard being close shaven and only a slight moustache permitted to remain. The hat, broad-brimmed and having its brim on one side slightly turned up, was adorned with a rich band and a profusion of drooping feathers; the stockings were tight to the leg, and the shoes, made very high over the instep, ιvere tied with immense bows that extended horizontally on either side of the foot; and a short cloak, no less splendid in both material and enrichment than the other portions of this gorgeous attire, either was suspended from the left shoulder or carried on the left arm. The sword, a rapier long and narrow in the blade, was suspended from a very broad and elaborately enriched belt crossing the person over the right shoulder. It will be understood that in the production of this costume the richest and most showy fabrics were employed; also that the men delighted in exhibiting in their dress every variety as well of colour and tint as of material, white, black, scarlet, and different shades of brown being in especial favour, with trimmings of gold and silver lace, buttons and twist, and ribbons of all breadths and every hue. The accompanying woodcut, drawn from an original contemporary authority (fig. 47), gives a correct general idea of the costume of the period of Charles II. In the autumn of 1666, as we learn from the ever-observant Pepys, the king in council declared his purpose to set a more sober and less costly fashion for dress, which he declared that he would not alter. Accordingly, under his doublet Charles appeared in a “vest,” “being a long cassock,” as Pepys explains, “close to the body, of black cloth and pinked with white silk under it; andacoat, or doublet, over it; and the legs ruffled with white ribbon, like a pigeon’s leg; and upon the whole,” adds the diarist, “I wish the king may keep it, for it is a. very fine and handsome garment.” The king kept it so far as afterwards it pleased him, and no further. This vest, or waistcoat, has undergone many changes, indeed, but it never has fallen into disuse since that 15th day of October 1666. In 1680 both vest and doublet became considerably longer, the latter reaching quite to the knees, and the former being but little shorter. The doublet was worn open, a sash about the waist then confining the vest. The brims of the hats at the same time became narrower, and bows of ribbon often were worn in place of feathers. The baudrick, or diagonal sword-belt, worn over the doublet was very broad, and allowed the hilt of the rapier to hang considerably below the left hip. About this time also, when jack-boots resembling those that had formed a part of the military appointments of the troopers in the civil Avar came into fashion, the sleeves of doublets were lengthened, and made with very broad cuffs which doubled back from the wrists. In the short reign of James II. (1685-1688), when the moustache disappeared, doublets and vests still further increased in length, and the cuffs of the doublet-sleeves became extravagantly large; more prominence was given to the lace cravats, which were worn loosely about the throat and with their ends hanging down over the upper part of the vest; the breeches and stockings remained without any change of form or adjustment; halfboots were worn, and buckles began at times to supersede roses and bows upon shoes; and at this time the sword was occasionally carried thrust through the lower part of the doublet, and almost in a horizontal position. The costume of the ladies of the Charles II. era, represented with such grace and effectiveness in Lely’s pictures, Planché thus describes: “A studied negligence, an elegant deshabille, is the prevailing character of the costume in which they are nearly all represented; their glossy ringlets escaping from a bandeau of pearls, unveiled by even the transparent lawn of the band or of the partiet; and the fair round arm reclines upon the voluptuous satin petticoat, while the gown of the same rich materials piles up its voluminous train in the background.” During the early part of the reign, however, much of the Puritan formality of then recent times lingered in female dress, as it did also in the attire of the male portion of the commonalty. Tightly laced bodices at no time lost favour with females of all ranks and classes. Hoods were worn, but generally only for protection from the weather, the prevailing usage being for females to wear their own hair in natural ringlets flowing over their shoulders, and with small curls over their foreheads; false hair, indeed, was sometimes, but only sometimes, worn, and worn in an extravagant fashion. The custom of painting and placing patches on the face became more common as the second half of the century advanced; and the immodest practice of exposing the bosom then attained to the extreme of indelicacy. As might have been expected at that era, the seldom dormant aim of the one sex to imitate the costume of the other was in full activity; thus, Pepys says,—“Walking in the gallery at Whitehall (June 1, 1664), I find the ladies of honour dressed in their riding garbs, with coats and doublets with deep skirts, just for all the world like mine, and their doublets buttoned up the breast, with periwigs and with hats; so that only for a long petticoat dragging under their men’s coats, nobody would take them for women in any point whatever; which was an odd sight, and a sight that did not please me.” Somewhat later, a similar “odd siglit” excited a corresponding feeling, the disapproval being blended with perplexed surprise, in the mind of Sir Roger de Coverley (Spectator, June 2, 1711). Whether worn by men or women, the ordinary dresses of the commonalty in th.eir general character resembled those of the noble and wealthy, but were much simpler in both style and materials.

Accompanied by no other decided or marked innovation than the introduction of tight knee-breeches, which during the following century were worn by all classes, and still form no unimportant part of English costume, the reign of William III. witnessed such modifications in the costume of the two preceding centuries as tended to make it more formal and appropriate, while at the same time leading the way to the tasteless frivolities and excesses of the next succeeding century. The doublets or coats of the gentlemen, their favourite colour some tint of claret when not scarlet or black, were longer, made to fit stiffly to the body, and laced and embroidered along the edges and seams and around the pocket-holes or the large flaps of the pockets in their skirts; and their comparatively tight sleeves had enormous cuffs that were laced and adorned with buttons; large shoulder-knots of ribbon were also worn. The vests, retaining their length, were left unbuttoned below the waist. Sashes occasionally were worn, and sometimes over the doublet. The breeches were made to fit tolerably closely to the limbs, and were, quite tight at the knees, where the tightly-fitting stockings, if not gartered, were drawn over them in a roll. The shoes, very high in the heel and fastened with buckles, had flaps which covered the instep and rose in front of the legs for 3 or 4 inches. The full shirt-sleeves with their lace ruffles were shown at the wrists; the loose neckcloth, had long pendant ends terminating in lace, if it was not entirely made of that material. The periwig, if possible more voluminous than ever, was abundantly powdered. The hat, sometimes triangular in form and with a narrow turned-up brim, was low in the crown, edged with gold-lace, and covered with feathers; or, being wide-brimmed, its brim was slightly turned up at the sides, when it was adorned only with a laced band and a small tuft of ribbons or feathers. The cloak, when in use, was rather longer than the doublet. In winter, the men kept their hands warm in small muffs that were suspended from ribbons about their necks; and for summer wear they had gloves edged with lace. When not attached to a broad and elaborately enriched belt crossing the right shoulder over the doublet, the rapier was carried thrust through the left pocket-hole of the doublet itself, the weapon being to form an acute angle at the back of the wearer. A costume such as this, as a matter of course, would be subjected to various modifications, and would constantly be simplified in many particulars without any essential departure from the actual type. The accompanying figure (fig. 48), drawn from a contemporary French engraving which represents an assemblage of the most illustrious personages in France in the year 1696, when compared with the numerous effigies and other portraits of the same era in this country, shows the typical dress to have been identical in its essentials, and characteristic on both sides of the Channel at the close of the 17th century. Further comparison, extending its range over the greater number of the countries of Europe, would serve to demonstrate the comprehensive prevalence of this same typical dress, and at the same time to assign its various subordinate local modifications to the varying influences of climate and of national character. In the female dress of this period, as it is exemplified in portraits of ladies of rank and fashion, stiffness and a formality of aspect were strangely blended with eccentricity and frivolous display. Bodices, very long in the waist and rather obtusely pointed both behind and before, were very tightly laced over rigid corsets; rich petticoats or under-dresses, partly covered with equally rich small aprons, were displayed from under full and flowing dresses that were gathered up in masses at the back of the wearer, or were drawn back and made to trail along on the ground behind her. At first very short and wide and edged with lace, from within which the delicate sleeves of the undergarment issued forth, the sleeves of the gowns after a while became tight and were prolonged to the wrists where they terminated in deep and wide upturned cuffs whence drooped a profusion of lace lappets or ruffles. Furbelows were introduced and worn in profusion upon dresses of every kind, including scarves and cloaks; and the fashion for adopting doublets and vests, with neckcloths, resembling those worn by men was prevalent in riding and walking costume. Heavy head-dresses also succeeded to the flowing ringlets and to the natural gracefulness of the coiffure of the era of Charles II. The hair, combed up and with an inclination backwards from the forehead, was surmounted by strata of ribbon and lace, sometimes intermingled with feathers, and a kerchief or scarf of some very light material thrown over all was permitted to hang down to the waist over en below it. Structures so produced assumed various forms, some of them being made to project while others either rose vertically or expanded in a horizontal direction, height, however, being the special aim; but in every case the result was the reverse of graceful or becoming. Hats, low in the crown and with wide brims, were worn over hoods when cold or when protection from wet required their adoption.

Modern Costume. Century XVIIL— The 17th century having been treated as a period of transition in the matter of costume between the Middle Ages and modern times, the era of modern costume may be defined to commence with the l8th century—that is, fourteen years before the accession of the sovereigns of the House of Hanover to the crown of Great Britain. Until in the course of this century it fell into general disuse for regular military service, defensive armour must be considered to have maintained a claim to have been regarded, under certain conditions and to a certain extent, as identified with the dress of an important and influential section of the community; that claim, how ever, which lingered so long and with such tenacity, altogether ceased to exist shortly after the commencement of the era of modern costume. For a considerable time, indeed almost till the middle of the century, costume must be considered to have been modified rather than subjected to decided innovation. Men’s dress remained the same in its general character, but became improved from being simplified and from having its decoration toned down. Planché says :—“Square-cut coats and long-flapped waistcoats with pockets in them, the latter meeting the stockings, still drawn up over the knee so high as entirely to conceal the breeches (then made to fit with comparative tightness to the limbs), but gartered below it; large hanging cuffs and lace ruffles; the skirts of the coat stiffened out with wire or buckram, from between which peeped the hilt of the sword, deprived of the broad and splendid belt in which it swung in preceding reigns; blue or scarlet silk stockings with gold or silver clocks; lace neckcloths; square-toed short-quartered shoes, with high red heels and small buckles; very long and formally curled perukes, black riding wigs, bag-wigs, and nightcap wigs; small three-cornered hats laced with gold or silver galloon, and sometimes trimmed with feathers,—composed the habit of the noblemen and gentlemen during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I.” To this habit, the dress of the commonalty, according to custom, conformed in all characteristic essentials. Meanwhile, when they did not wear such head-dresses as were very low, the ladies continued to elevate their strange and uncouth head-gear. About 1710, as if resolved that their figures should rival their heads in extravagance, they introduced the hooped petticoat, at first worn in such a manner as to give to the person of the wearer below her very tightly laced waist a contour resembling the letter V inverted— 2 ∖∙ The hooped dresses, thus introduced, about 1740 attained to an enormous expansion; and, being worn at their full circumference immediately below the waist, they in many ways emulated the most outrageous of the farthingales of the Elizabethan age. Some few years also before the middle of this century the “saque” made its appearance: it was a loose gown, open in front, which was worn hanging from the shoulders quite free of the person of the wearer, and was gathered up over the hoop when not permitted to trail along on the ground; in this unsightly garment any approach to “fit” was necessarily out of the question. At the same period, the men began to lay aside more of their lace and of the other ornamental accessories of their garments; their coats became longer, and their waistcoats somewhat shorter; the cuffs of their collarless coats increased in size until they reached their elbows; their stockings, when still drawn over their breeches above the knee, were so adjusted as to permit their breeches to be seen, but the breeches began to be made to fasten over the stockings, with buttons and buckles below the knee; their wigs ceased to curl over their shoulders, and pigtails came into fashion. The costume of this era has been immortalized by Hogarth. During the forty years of this century that George III. was king, the fashions of dress passed through a remarkable variety of changes, each change contributing its own full share to the aggregate of extravagance and absurdity that was surpassed at no earlier period. About 1760 a passion for adorning the dress of both sexes began to revive; and it soon exercised its influence, reckless of all true taste, with unsparing energy—the head-dresses of the ladies, wshich about 1780 attained to the culminating degree of extravagant unsightliness, being its specially favoured field for operations. Fig. 49, faithfully reproduced from a contemporary engraving, shows under one of its least extravagant and tasteless forms a fashionable head-dress of the period in question. As a matter of course, in the construction of every variety of head-gear such as this, which in every instance necessarily obliterated all traces of the true form of the head and destroyed all proportion in the entire figure, false hair was used in abundance with a profusion of objects of a so-called decorative order. Until about 1785 the type of men’s dress remained established without any essential change: the coat was made to fall back more than had been the usage a few years earlier, the object being to display more effectively the long-flapped waistcoat with the pockets in its laced flaps; the stockings always were gathered up below the knee under the breeches, wshich were fastened by buckles; the heels of shoes were lowered, and the buckles worn in them were comparatively small; cocked-hats were worn,’with laced ruffles and cravats, and bag-wigs, which generally were powdered; and a broad black ribbon, called a “solitaire,” was placed about the throat and fastened behind. This costume about 1785 gave way to the dress that in France was developed with the advance of the Révolution. Men’s coats became very long, and sloped off from the waist, where they were buttoned, both upwards and downwards; their sleeves were moderately tight with small close-fitting cuffs, and their collars either were high and doubled back stiffly, or made to spread upon the shoulders; the flaps of their pockets were placed at the back and close together; and all puffing and lace and embroidery were laid aside. The flaps of waistcoats, if retained at all, were short, and the garment itself was made open at the throat, the frill of the shirt appearing from under it. The breeches, fitting very tightly, either were cut short at the knee, or carried a few inches below it and there buttoned and tied with strings, knee-buckles except for court-dresses having gone out of fashion; the tight breeches also at this same time frequently were prolonged as pantaloons to the middle of the calf of the leg, where they were met by half top-boots. A rather large cravat was tied loosely in bows about the throat; the hair, worn long generally, was powdered and tied in a queue; and the hats, round in form, were either of moderate height in the crown, or tall and conical, and their nearly flat round brim was either narrow or moderately broad. The ladies delighted in tight bodices, furbelowed dresses, gorgeous petticoats, worn over hoops varying in size, and saques, which in reality were the mantles of early times revived, without a revival of their grace and elegance. About 1770, the sleeves of the ladies’ dresses were tight on the upper arm, where they suddenly became very large, and, drooping at the elbow, they terminated in rich fringes of lace ruffles; a few years later the sleeves expanded from the shoulder, till they became a succession of constantly enlarging ruffles and lappets; and again, before 1780, they became tight throughout, with small cuffs and no lace at the elbows, when they were worn with long gloves. Influenced, doubtless, by the great portraitpainters of that time, about 1785 the female head-dresses gradually subsided, and their worst features for the most part disappeared. Hats having an immense expanse of brim grew into favour, and the natural hair was permitted to fall over the shoulders in ringlets. Small hoops were worn in 1788, with a dress open in front and trailing on the ground behind, their sleeves tight and frilled at the elbows. This dress often was worn with a tight and very low bodice, a white kerchief being gathered closely about the throat, and while entirely enveloping the bust, being puffed out from beneath the chin so as to resemble the breast of a pigeon. Round straw hats, with drooping edgefrills, bows of ribbon, feathers, and high crowns, completed this costume. Then in about five years came the era of short waists, that might be distinguished as the waistless era when ladies’ dresses, no longer distended by hoops, fell in straight loose folds to their feet. About 1795 open dresses were discarded; the saques ceased to be; waists became longer, and when the present century dawned they regained their natural position and form. At this time bonnets were worn that incased the wearer’s head, or were flat and projecting. They also were adorned with a taste that was comparatively simple and becoming; and, at the same time, the hair, free from powder, was dressed in curls about the face and neck. While thus in ordinary life costume at the close of the 18th century became approximately what might be desired, court-dress still exhibited the extravagancies that under other conditions had happily become obsolete, the hoop with all its really offensive mass of so-called decorative allies retaining their ground in defiance of all opposition, until the chief offender and its worst associates were banished by royal command when George IV. had become king.

Baronial.

The peers of the United Kingdom, on occasions of state and ceremony, over their habitual dress wear robes of scarlet cloth, made long and of ample dimensions, which are adjusted on the right shoulder and are guarded with bands or rows of ermine, the robes of the different orders and ranks of the peerage being distinguished as follows :— Barons, who now form the lowest order of British peers, on their scarlet robes have two bands of ermine; viscounts, whose order intervenes between the barons and the earls, have two and a half bands of ermine; the robes of earls have three bands; those of marquises have three and a half rows; and upon the robes of dukes, whose order is the highest, the ermine is in four rows.

For notices of the costume and insignia of members of orders of knighthood, see Heraldry. Judicial and Forensic.

So long as the highest offices in the law were held, in accordance with mediaeval usage, by dignified ecclesiastics, those eminent personages were represented in their monu.- mental effigies, not as wearing judicial or other legal dress and robes, but as habited in the official vestments of their rank as churchmen; and that this practice continued in force down to the time of the Reformation is shown in the brass in Ely Cathedral to Thomas Goodrich, bishop of that see, who also was lord high chancellor of England. Monumental effigies of judges, however, and of other personages of note in the law, occasionally occur from the middle of the 14th century downwards, which give information as to the form and adjustment of legal robes that doubtless is authentic, and therefore valuable; but these authorities do not extend to any indications of colour. The actual dress of these legal personages evidently differed but little, if it differed at all, from the ordinary costume of their day; but over their dress they wore a tippet, and a robe which with rare exceptions was fastened on the right shoulder, and their heads were covered with a close-fitting coif, in addition to which in the 15th and 16th centuries they carried the hood with the long pendant scarf, so characteristic of those times, cast over one of their shoulders. It is probable, also, that the long and loose gown with wide sleeves in general use assumed at a comυaratively early period the aspect of an official robe by being made of the same material and colour as the unquestionably official mantle. In the second half of the l5th century and in the century following, the gowns worn by the judges when on the bench, and on all occasions of state and ceremony, certainly constituted parts of their official attire. Scarlet appears to have been the prevalent colour of judicial robes, with linings and trimmings of miniver—the white skin of the ermine—until the l7th century, when on certain occasions the judges wore robes of black or violet; but robes and gowns of a yellowish hue, and distinguished as “mustard-coloured,” were also worn; and there is a record of an issue of “liveries” of both cloth and silk with fur from the great wardrobe, in the time of Edw ard III., to the justices, the colour of each fabric being green. Again, in similar allowances under Richard II. and Henry VI., “green” is a colour specially mentioned with “violet in grain,” and fur of “miniver.” In his fine sculptured effigy at Harwood in Yorkshire, Chief Justice Sir William Gascoigne (died in 1419) is represented having suspended from his girdle an anlace or short sword, with a gypcière; and the same appendages also appear in several brasses to judges. In four illuminations, which have been reproduced in fac-simile and published in the Arcliaeologia (xxxix. 358), in which are represented sittings of the king’s four superior courts in the time of Henry VI.—Chancery, King’s Bench, Common Pleas, and Exchequer—the robes and costume of the lord chancellor, judges, serjeants, barristers, and officers of the courts are shown with minute attention to both colour and details. The chancellor and one judge who sits beside him, and all the judges of the three other courts, are alike in being attired in ample robes of scarlet, lined and trimmed with white fur; but the chancellor alone wears a scarlet robe which is not fastened on the shoulder and has openings pierced on each side to admit his arms passing through, so showing the sleeves of his under garment to be white; he is further distinguished by having about his shoulders and over his robe a tippet of scarlet, lined and bordered with white fur; the white lining of his hood, also, stands up about his neck like a collar, and on his head he has a close-fitting dark brown cap. Under his scarlet robe, the judge sitting on the right of the chancellor, who holds in his hands a sealed document, is habited in a gown of the same colour; bare-headed and tonsured, he also has the white lining of his hood adjusted about his neck after the manner of a collar. To the right and left, two on each side, their seats on the same level with the two central scarlet-robed figures, four other personages, who may have been masters in Chancery, are seated, habited in flowing “mustard-colour” robes not adjusted on the shoulder, and having falling over their shoulders large hoods of the same colour lined with white; they all are bare-headed, and three of their number certainly are tonsured. Five judges sit in the Court of King’s Bench, robed alike in scarlet gowns, with tippets, and mantles worn over their tippets, and fastened on the right shoulder. All these robes are lined and bordered with white, and the mantles have scarlet hoods worn as collars closely encircling the throat. These five judges wear white coifs, as do the seven judges, all of them robed exactly like their brethren of the King’s Bench, who preside in the Court of Common Pleas. Over the Court of Exchequer a baron presides, who is robed in the rame manner as the judges of the two courts last named; but he differs from them in wearing (doubtless over his coif, which is not shown) a large scarlet hood-like cap, of the fashion prevalent at his day. He sits with two other judges on each side of him, who wear “mustard-colour” robes of the same character; two of them also wear the large caps; while the two others, wearing coifs, hold similar caps in their hands; all these caps are “mustard-colour.” At the table in each court stand serjeants, counsel, notaries, clerks, and officers of various ranks, all of them in their proper official costume. All of them bare-headed, some of these persons wear full-sleeved gowns reaching to their feet, of blue, green, or mustard-colour; and their gowns, which have small black collars, are adjusted at the waist with narrow black girdles. Others, wearing similar girdles, are habited in gowns of the same fashion that are party-coloured, the division and junction of the two colours being vertical or per pale, and the colours being blue and green, blue or green and mustard-colour, green and murrey, and two tints of green. These gowns also are “rayed,” or striped, either diagonally or vertically, with yellow, white, or blue. The notaries carry at their girdles their inkhorn and penner. The serjeants alone, who appear in each one of the four pictures, are habited in long and flowing gowns, worn without any belt, all of them party-coloured blue and green and rayed, with tippets and hoods of the same colours; these learned gentlemen, also, have on their heads coifs similar to those worn by the judges (fig. 50). The use of party -coloured garments, undoubtedly of heraldic origin, by persons of various classes and ranks, has already been noticed. In the absence of any express record of the source whence certain officers of the law derived their partycoloured gowns, it has been considered probable that these were livery gowns, presented to serjeants and barristers by their clients of high rank, with their retaining fees. However this may be, it appears certain that their partycoloured robes were worn by serjeants long before the l5th century; and, when giving his view as to their significance, in the following passage from a charge delivered to certain serjeants then newly created, in the thirty-sixth year of Queen Elizabeth, the lord chief justice suggested these party-coloured robes having been worn by the judges :— “By the party-coloured garments,” said that learned personage, “being both of deep colours, and such as the judges themselves in ancient times used (for so we receive it by tradition), is signified soundness and depth of judgment, an ability to discerne of causes, what colour soever be cast over them, and under or with what vail or shadow soever they be disguised.” In the 15th century Sir John Fortescue said of a judge,—“Being a serjeant-at-law, he is clothed in a long priest-like robe, with a furred cape about his shoulders, and thereupon a hood with two labels (such as doctors of the law wear in certain universities with their coif); but, being made a justice, instead of his hood he must wear a cloak closed upon his right shoulder, all the other ornaments of a serjeant still remaining, saving that his vesture shall not be party-coloured as a serjeant’s may, and his cape furred with miniver, whereas the serjeant’s cape is ever furred with white lambskin.” Whatever at various periods may have been the usage with judges, the wearing of party-coloured robes by serjeants appears to have been discontinued about the commencement of the present century. In our own times, except on some special occasions when their robes are either purple or scarlet, serjeants wear a black silk gown, like that of queen’s counsel. The robes of the junior members of the bar, made of black stuff instead of silk, are further distinguished by certain peculfarities of form. Reminiscences of the coifs of earlier days, and of the caps with the pendants, still linger in the wigs worn by the entire learned brotherhood of the law, and in certain peculiar appendages attached to their robes. The large bands also, worn at the present day, may be considered to have had their prototypes in the labels already mentioned, which appear, dependent on his breast from his hood, in the brass to Thomas Rolf, barrister, 1440, at Gosfield, Essex. Fine and characteristic examples of judicial costume are preserved in various monumental effigies, some sculptured and others engraved, which include in their number the memorials of Judge Thomas Owen, 1598, and Lord Chief Justice Sir Thomas Richardson, 1634, both in Westminister Abbey; the effigy of Judge Richard Harper, temp. Mary, at Swarthstone, Derbyshire; and the brasses, ranging in date from 1400 to 1553, at Deerhurst, Watford, Gunby, Graveney, Latton, Dagenham, Cowthorpe, Norbury, Milton, and Narburgh. It may here be added that, in various representations of notaries of the 15th and 16th centuries, they appear in the ordinary civilian attire of their period with a pen-case ard inkhorn suspended from the girdle of their tunic; there is a good example in a brass in the church of St Mary’s Tower, Ipswich; while several of these personages are introduced into the illuminations representing the courts of law described above.

Naval and Military.

Any attempt to notice in detail the naval and military uniforms in use at successive periods even in England would far exceed our present limits. At the same time, it appears desirable here to observe that the very decided distinction between “uniform.” and especially military uniform, and contemporary civil costume now obtaining is of comparatively recent date. Throughout the armour era such distinction can scarcely be said to have existed, nor were the services afloat and on land distinguished by special and recognized peculiarities of dress. In the navy, the distinctive characteristics of uniform have become the cocked hat, epaulets of bullion, the crown-and-anchor button, and a by no means lavish application of gold-lace— the cloth, a dark blue with facings and lining of white, except during the reign of William IV,, when the white was superseded by scarlet. Gradations of naval rank are indicated by the presence of a crown, a star or stars, and an anchor on the shoulder-strap of the epaulets, and by the size and comparative richness of the bullion; also by the number and the breadth of distinct strips of gold-lace that encircle the cuffs of coats and jackets; all executive officers being further distinguished by a coil of the gold-lace attached to the uppermost of the cuff-circles. From the time that the stout “buff-coat” of the era of the Commonwealth succeeded to what still lingered of the plate panoply and the mail of earlier times, the uniform of the British army, for a while in many essential features conforming to the prevailing characteristics of the general costume of the day, has undergone a succession of changes for the most part more remarkable for variety and often for caprice, than expressive either of true taste in the consistent adornment of a soldier’s person, or of considerate adjustment to the exigencies of military service, the exceptions being the judicious innovations happily introduced early in the present century by the duke of Wellington. Scarlet obtains as the distinctive national British military colour, certain arms of the service being attired in blue or dark green; while the recent volunteer movement has brought with it a variety of uniforms expressly adapted for use by the reserved forces. For a comprehensive, accurate, and copiously illustrated sketch of British military costume, readers are referred to the History of the Dress of the British Soldier, by Captain John Lua rd.

Highlands of Scotland.

Without a rival in the picturesque individuality of its character, the national costume of the Highlands of Scotland is remarkable as well for the manner in which it has been made to distinguish the various clans or septs of the same race, as for a certain general uniformity that significantly intimates the brotherhood of the clans as alike sharing a single common nationality. It probably is due to its own distinctive peculiarities that the Scottish Highland dress should have been inherited and transmitted from generation to generation almost without any change, and that at the present day it should be held in as high a degree of estimation as it ever enjoyed in past times. In early ages, having been influenced in a certain degree by the general fashions of dress prevalent at successive periods, a comparatively slight use of defensive armour having also for a while been adopted as a military accessory, shortly after the commencement of the 17th century this costume may be considered to have assumed the character which since that time it has maintained, with scarcely any modification except in the style of the short tunic. Before the accession of James VI. of Scotland to the throne of Great Britain, the tunic and the “phillibeg,” or kilt, formed a single garment, whereas apparently during the reign of the son of Queen Mary Stuart the kilt became a separate garment, to be adjusted about the waist, and reaching not quite to the knees after the manner of a short petticoat, a vest and tunic being separate garments also. Stockings, gartered below the knees, which thus would be left bare, with shoes, completed the equipment of the lower limbs. A cap or bonnet, without any peak, decorated with a spray of heather, was worn as a head covering, the bonnets of the chiefs being distinguished by the addition of eagles’ feathers. In front of the person, and depending from a belt encircling the waist, was worn the “spleuchan,” or pocket-purse, covered with fur; and a “plaid,” or scarf, of ample dimensions, generally adjusted across the person of the wearer, and having the ends hanging down from a brooch fastened on the left shoulder, as in fig. 52, completed the costume; occasionally, however, the plaid was gathered up so as to admit more free movement in the manner represented in fig. 51.

The weapons were a broadsword, or “claymore,” having a straight blade and a basket-hilt, attached to a broad baudrick which passed over the right shoulder, and a dirk worn on the right side, the sheath of the dirk being also provided with a hunting-knife. Before the general use of firearms by the Highlanders, they carried for defence a circular target on the left arm. The two accompanying figures, which show the different modes of adjusting the plaid, are also examples, the one of the tartan in which green is the prevailing colour, with narrow checks of red (fig. 51), a chief of the clan MacDonell, and the other (fig. 52), a piper of the clan Gregarach, of a tartan which is red with narrow black checks. The colours, and the “set” or patterns of the checks, of the tartans of the different clans, the Royal Stuart being the richest of all, have been determined for a considerable time, the actual era of their original introduction not having been definitively determined. The costume of each clan is fully and faithfully represented in Μ Tan’s volumes, referred to below.

Bibliography.

To compensate in some degree for unavoidable conciseness, as much space as possible is here assigned to references to publications which comprehend within their range the consideration and illustration of minute details, and which also treat of costume under widely varying conditions and regarded from very diiferent points of view. No attempt is made to give a list that is even approximately complete, but attention is directed to a selected series of works of a typical and authoritative character, in which is concentrated direct, specific, and suggestive information. In its historical aspect, the study of costume implies a systematic comparison of the costumes of different races and countries. Reference must also be made to those monumental works of art that have come down to our own times comparatively unmutilated, which are also of equal value as illustrations of armour. (See Arms and Armour.) Egyptian. —The great and magnificent foreign works on the “monuments” of Egypt by Lepsius (Denkmäler aus Aegypten und Aethiopen, with 899 plates), Chainpollion, and Rosellini; Egypt and Nubia, by David Roberts, R.A. In the two series of Sir G. Wilkinson’s Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians (6 vols, with 600 illustrations) the subject is exhaustively treated; see also the smaller work (2 vols, copiously illustrated) by the same author. Equally excellent is the companion work, Lane’s Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, 5th edition, illustrated. See also the British Museum Photographs, part ii., 118 plates.

Assyrian. —Layard’s Monuments of Nineveh, two series; and, by the same author, Nineveh and its Remains, and Nineveh and Babylon; British Museum Photographs, part iii., 245 plates.

Greek and Rom a,n. —The best illustrators are the British Mzιseum Photographs, parts iv. and v., 175 and 97 plates; with other photographs of Greek and Roman draped statues and busts, and also others of certain gems and vases by ancient artists. The fac-simile representations will be advantageously associated with Smith’s and Rich’s Dictionaries of Greek and Roman Antiquities. See also Hope’s Costumes of the Ancients (Egyptian,^ Greek, and Roman); Hamilton’s Etruscan and Greek Vases; Millingen’s Ancient Unedited Monuments (Greek), and Inghirami’s great work, Monumenti Etruschi (14 vols., including the Vasi Fittilí). Oriental. —Simpson’s India Ancient and Modern (2 vols., 50 illustrations); Forbes Watson and J. W. Kaye’s People of India (with photographs); Chinese Costumes, and the Employments of Chinese Traders, edited by Sir J. Bowring (3 vols.); and J. Thompson’s illustrated volumes on China, the Straits of Malacca, &c. Also Audsley and Bowe’s splendid Keramic Art of Japan, and Sir R. Ker Porter’s illustrated Travels in Persia, &c. For the costumes of Central Asia, Schuyler’s Türkistan and Captain Burnaby’s Khiva. _ Ecclesiastical.— Vestiarium Christianum, by Rev.W. B. Marriott, written with true historical impartiality, and illustrated with 63 excellent photographs and engravings, commencing from the earliest known examples of authority, and tracing the history of ecclesiastical vestments from its origin. The subject is further worked out in D’Agincourt’s History of Art by its Monuments from 4th to 16th century (51 plates of sculpture and 204 of painting), and in Lee’s Glossary of Liturgical and Ecclesiastical Terms. In its full development, from the 13th century downwards, effigies of ecclesiastics, which abound in England and in some parts of the Continent, are among the most perfect of the mediaeval exponents and illustrators of costume; and they themselves have been fully and faithfully illustrated in the following works on early monumental art :—Stothard’s Monumental Effigies of Great Britain; Waller’s Monumental Brasses; Cotman’s Brasses of Norfolk and Suffolk; BoutelΓs Monumental Brasses and Slabs, and Monumental Brasses of Great Britain; Hollis’s Monumental Effigies (incomplete); Haines’s Manual of Monumental Brasses. Miscellaneous Works on Costume. —Bruce’s Bayeux Tapestry, 4to., 17 fac-simile plates, 1856; Fairholt’s Costume in England, 8vo., illustrated, 1860; Fowler’s (William, of Winterton) Examples of Mediaeval Art, atlas folio, 116 plates, 1796-1829; Froissart’s Chronicles, translated by Johnes, 4 vols. roy. 8vo., 72 plates and numerous woodcuts, 1844; Hogarth’s Works, engraved by himself, with descriptions by J. Nichols, atlas folio, 153 plates, 1822; Holbein’s Portraits of the Court of Henry VIII. , imp. 4to., 80 plates, 1828; Humphrey’s (R. Ñ.) ∏luminated Books of the Middle Ages, folio, London, 1849; Lodge’s Portraits and Memoirs of Illustrious Personages of Great Britain, 12 vols. imp. 8vo., 240 plates, 1823-35; Luard’s History of the Dress of the British Soldier from, the Earliest Period to the Present Time, 8vo., 50 plates, 1852 (the later portions are the best); Mclan and Logan’s Clans of the Scottish Highlands, 2 vols. imp. folio, 72 plates, 1857; Malcolm’s Manners and Customs of London, 6 vols. 8vo, 63 plates, 1810-11; Nichols’s Progresses, Pageants, dec., of Queen Elizabeth, 7 vols. 4to., numerous plates, 1823-28; Planché’s History of British Costume, small 8vo. 1836; Planché’s Encyclopaedia of Costume, 2 vols. 4to, 1876-77; Semple’s (Miss), Costume of the Netherlands, folio, 30 plates, 1817; Shaw’s Dresses and Decorations of the Middle Ages (from 7th to 17th century), 2 vols. imp. 8vo., 94 plates, and numerous woodcuts; 1840-43; Strutt’s Regal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Great Britain, roy. 4to., 72 plates, 1842; Strutt’s Dresses and Habits of the English, 2 vols. roy. 4to., 153 plates, 1842; Westwood’s Miniatures of Anglo-Saxon and Irish Manuscripts, imp. folio, 54 plates, 1868.

Of foreign works on costume, the two that have special claims to the attention, the admiration, and the grateful confidence of students are—Hefner-Alteneck, Costume du moyen-âge chrétien, 4 vols. imp. 4to., 420 plates, Frankfort, 1840-50; and Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier française, 6 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1853—75 (the first four volumes, rich in admirable engravings, are specially devoted to armour and costume). Besides these, the following are of importance:—Bonnani’s Costumes of the Religious Orders, 2 vols. 4to., 249 plates, Rome, 1741; Bonnard et Mercuri, Costumes historiques des XI le, XII le, XI Ve, et X Ve siècles, 2 vols, imp. 4to., 200 plates, Paris, 1867; Burgmair, Triomphe de ïEmpereur Maximilien I., atlas folio, 135 plates, Vienna, 1796; Chapuy, Le moyen âge pittoresque, 2 vols, folio, 180 plates, 1837; Chevignard et Duplessis, Costumes historiques des X Vic, X Vile, et X Ville siècles, 2 vols. imp. 4to., 150 plates, Paris, 1867; Du Sommerard, Les arts au moyen âge, 10 vols. (5 folio, and 5 of text 8vo), 510 plates, Paris, 1838-48; Duflos, Recueil dl estampes, représentant les grades, les rangs, et les dignités, suivant le costume de toutes les nations existantes, large folio, 240 plates, Paris, 1779-80; Espana arlistica y monumental, 3 vols. imp. folio, 145 plates, Paris, 1842-59; Fabri’s Raccolta di Varii Vestimenti cd Arti del Regno di Napoli, folio, 27 plates, Naples, 1773; Helyot, Histoire des ordres monastiques, religieux, et militaires, 8 vols. 4to., 812 plates, Paris, 1792; J «que min, Iconographie méthodique du costume du Ve au XIXe siècle, roy. folio, 200 plates, Paris; Lacombe, Galerie de Florence et du Palais Pitti, 4 vols. roy. folio, 192 plates, Paris, 1789-1807; Lacroix, Paul, Manners, Customs, and Dress during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, 8vo. London, 1874; Lacroix, Paul, Military and Religious Life in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, 4to. London, 1874; Lacroix, Paul, The 18th Century, its Institutions, Customs, Costumes, 8vo. London, 1875-76; Lanté, Gallerie française de femmes célèbres, atlas 4to., 70 plates, Paris, 1841; Malliot et Martin, Recherches sur les costumes, les moeurs, les usages religieux, civiles, et militaires des anciens peuples, 3 vols, 4to., 228 plates, Paris, 1809; Pauly, Déscription ethnographique des peτιples, roy. folio, St. Petersburg, 1862; Pauquet Frères, Modes et costumes historiques et étrangers, 2 vols. med. 4to., 196 plates, Paris, 1873; Racinet, Μ. A., Le costume historique, in two forms, large and small, Paris, 1876; Straub, G. Μ, Trachten oder Stammbuch, small oblong 4to. (several hundreds of curious woodcuts of costumes), 1600; Vecellio, Habiti Antichi et Moderni de tutti il Mondo, 3 vols., 8vo., Venice, 1859-63.

Examples and illustrations of early costume of great interest and value may be found in the Archaeologia, Μ. Didron’s Annales Archéologiques, the Journals of the Archaeological Societies, the various County Histories, the Monumenta Vetusta of the London Society of Antiquaries, and other kindred works.