SCHOOLS. See Education, Blind, Deaf and Dumb, Conservatory, &c., and the relative sections of the articles on individual countries and states. THE word “school” as applied to painting is used with various more or less comprehensive meanings. In its widest sense it includes all the painters of one country, of every date,—as, for example, “the Italian school.” In its narrowest sense it denotes a group of painters who all worked under the influence of one man,—as, for example, “the school of Raphael.” In a third sense it is applied to the painters of one city or province who for successive generations worked under some common local influence, and with some general similarity in design, colour, or technique,—as, for example, “the Florentine school,” “the Umbrian school.” For many reasons the existence of well-defined schools of painting is now almost wholly a thing of the past, and the conditions under which the modern artist gains his education, finds his patrons, and carries out his work have little in common with those which were prevalent throughout the Middle Ages. Painters in the old times were closely bound together as fellow-members of a painters’ guild, with its clearly defined set of rules and traditions; moreover, the universal system of apprenticeship, which compelled the young painter to work for a term of years in the bottega or studio of some established freedman of the guild, frequently caused the impress of the genius of one man to be very clearly stamped on a large number of pupils, who thus all picked up and frequently retained for life certain tricks of manner or peculiarities of method which often make it difficult to distinguish the authorship of a special painting. The strong similarity which often runs through the productions of several artists who had been fellow-pupils under the same master was largely increased by the fact that most popular painters, such as Botticelli or Perugino, turned out from their botteghe many pictures to which the master himself contributed little beyond the general design,—the actual execution being in part or even wholly the work of pupils or paid assistants. It was not beneath the dignity of a great painter to turn out works at different scales of prices to suit rich or poor, varying from the well-paid-for altarpiece given by some wealthy donor, which the master would paint wholly with his own hand, down to the humble bit of decorative work for the sides of a wedding cassone, which would be left entirely to the ’prentice hand of a pupil. In other cases the heads only in a picture would be by the master himself or possibly the whole of the principal figures, the background and accessories being left to assistants. The buyer sometimes stipulated in a carefully drawn up contract that the cartoon or design should be wholly the work of the master, and that he should himself transfer it on to the wall or panel. It will thus be seen how impossible it is always to decide whether a picture should be classed as a piece of bottega work or as a genuine production of a noted master; and this will explain the strange inequality of execution which is so striking in many of the works of the old masters, especially the Italians. Among the early Flemish and Dutch painters this method of painting does not appear to have been so largely practised, probably because they considered minute perfection of workmanship to be of paramount importance.
1. Italian.
In Italy, as in other parts of Europe, the Byzantine school of painting was for many centuries universally prevalent, and it was not till quite the end of the 13th century that one man of extraordinary talent—Giotto— broke through the long-established traditions and inaugurated the true Renaissance of this art. According to Vasari, it was Cimabue who first ceased to work in the Byzantine manner; but the truth is that his pictures, though certainly superior to those of his predecessors, are thoroughly characteristic specimens of the Byzantine style. Ghiberti, in his Commentary (a century earlier than Vasari’s work), with greater accuracy remarks that both Duccio of Siena and Cimabue worked in the Byzantine manner, and that Giotto was the first who learnt to paint with naturalistic truth.
In the 12th and the early part of the 13th century Pisa and Lucca were the chief seats of what rude painting then existed in Italy. A
number of works of this date still exist, chiefly painted Crucifixions treated in the most con ventional By zantine manner.
Giunta Pisano, who was paint ing in the first half of the 13th century, was a little superior to the otherwise dead level of hieratic conven tionalism. He is said to have been Cimabue’s master. In the
14th century painting in Pisa was either Flor-
entine or Sien ese in style.
No city, not even Florence, was so fertile as Siena in native painters during the 13th and 14th centuries. The earliest, working before 1300, did not emanci pate themselves from the old
Byzantine man nerism; Guido da Siena, Duc cio (see fig.
1 ) and Segna di Buoninsegna possessed many of the peculi arities of the old school,—its rigid attitudes, its thin stiff folds, and its greenish sha dows in the flesh tints. In the first half of the l 4th century a number of very able painters were carrying on at Siena a parallel development to that which Giotto had inaugurated at Florence; chief among them were Simone di Martino, Lippo Memmi, and especially Ambrogio Lorenzetti, a painter of both panels and large frescos, which show rich and noble imaginative power and much technical skill. It is important to note that Ambrogio and probably other painters of his time were, like the ear lier Pisan Niccola, beginning to study the then rare ex amples of classical sculpture. Ghiberti, in his Commentary, speaks with enthu-.
siasm of the beauty of an antique statue which he knew only from a drawing by Ambrogio Lorenzetti. In the second half of the 14th century Siena produced a large number of more mediocre painters; but these were succeeded by an abler generation, among whom the chief were perhaps Sano di Pietro and Matteo di Giovanni, whose grand altarpiece (No. 1155), recently acquired, is one of the glories of the English National Gallery. Many excellent masters were working at Siena throughout the 15th century and even later; the last names of any real note are those of Peruzzi and Beccafumi. Sodoma, though he settled in Siena in 1501, does not belong to the school of Siena; his early life was passed at Milan, chiefly under the influence of Da Vinci. His talent was developed at Rome among the followers of Raphael.
On the whole the Florentine school surpasses in importance all others throughout Italy. Cimabue, though he did not emancipate himself from the Byzantine manner, was a painter of real genius (see fig. 2).
Giotto is perhaps the most important painter in the history of the development of art, for during the whole of the 14th century the painters of Florence may be said to have been his pupils and imitators (see fig. 3). Orcagna alone developed rather a different line, more richly decorative in style and brighter in colour,— a link between the art of Giotto and that of Siena. In the 15th century Florence reached its period of highest artistic splendour and developed an almost naturalistic school, which appears to have been inaugurated by Masolino and Masaccio. Some few painters, such as Fra Angelico (see fig. 4) and his pupil Benozzo Gozzoli, produced more purely sacred and decorative work, following the lead of Orcagna. As Baron Rumohr has pointed out, the main bulk of the Florentine 15th-century painters may be divided into three groups with different characteristics. The first, including Masolino, Masaccio, Lippo Lippi, Botticelli, Filippino Lippi, and their pupils, aimed especially at strong action, dramatic force, and passionate expression (see figs. 5 and 6). The second, including Baldovinetti, Ros-
selli, Ghirlandaio, and his pupils, are remarkable for realistic truth and vigorous individuality (see fig. 7). To the third belong Ghiberti, who began life as a painter,
Pollaiuolo, Verrocchio, and his pupils Leonardo da Vinci and Lorenzo di Credi,
—a group largely influenced by the practice of the arts of the goldsmith and the sculptor. Signorelli, whose chief works are at Orvieto and
Monte Oliveto near
Siena, was remarkable for his knowledge and masterly treatment of the nude (see fig. 8), and had much influence on the early development of Michelangelo, whose gigantic genius in later life produced the most original and powerful works that the modern world has seen (see fig. 9). Andrea del Sarto was one of the last artists of the golden age of painting in Florence; the soft beauty of his works is, however, often marred by a monotonous mannerism. To him are wrongly attributed many paintings by Puligo and other scholars, who imitated his style with various degrees of closeness. The 16th century in Florence was a period of the most rapid decline and was for long chiefly remarkable for its feeble caricatures of Michelangelo’s inimitable style.
Between the end of the 14th and the beginning of the
16th century the Umbrian school produced many painters of great importance grouped around a number of different centres, such as Gubbio, where Ottaviano Nelli lived; San Severino, with its two Lorenzos; Fabriano, famed for its able masters Allegretto Nuzi and Gentile da Fabriano; Foligno, whence Niccolo took his name; and above all Borgo San Sepolcro, where Piero della Francesca was born.
Piero was one of the most charming of all painters for his delicate modelling, tender colour, and beauty of expression (see fig.
10). His masterpiece, a large altar-painting of the Madonna enthroned, with standing saints at the side and in front a kneeling portrait of Duke Federigo da Montefeltro, in the Brera gallery, is, strange to say, attributed to his pupil Fra Carnovale. Gentile da Fabriano worked in the purely religious and richly decorative style that characterized Fra Angelico at Perugia. Fiorenzo di Lorenzo (see fig. 11) and Bonfigli prepared the way for Perugino (see fig. 12) and his pupils Pinturicchio. Raphael, Lo Spagna, and others. Timoteo Viti was another Umbrian painter of great ability, whose portrait by Raphael in black and red chalk is one of the most beautiful of the drawings in the Print Room of the British Museum.
The Paduan school is chiefly remarkable for the great name of Andrea Mantegna, the pupil of Squarcione; his firm and sculpturesque draw ing is combined with great beauty of colour and vigor ous expression (see fig. 13).
His pupil Montagna also studied under Gian. Bellini at Venice. Andrea Mantegna influenced and was influenced by the Venetian school; to him are attributed many of the early paintings of his brother-in-law Gian. Bellini, such as the Vatican Pietà, and other works more remarkable for vigour than for grace.
The school of Arezzo was early in its development.
Margaritone, who is absurdly overpraised by his fellowtownsman Vasari, was an artist of the most feeble abilities. In the 14th century Arezzo produced such able painters as Spinello di Luca, Niccolo di Gerini, and Lorenzo di Bicci. In the 15th century it possessed no native school worth recording.
Venice did not come into prominence till the 15th century; the Vivarini family of Murano were at work about the middle of it, and were perhaps influ enced by the Ger man style of a con temporary painter from Cologne, known as Johannes Aleman-
nus, who had settled in Venice. Some years later the tech nical methods of
Flanders were intro duced by Antonello of Messina, who is said to have learnt the secret of an oil medium from the
Van Eycks. Cri-
velli, an able though mannered painter of the second half of the 15th century, adhered to an earlier type than his contemporaries (see fig. 14). Gian. Bellini is one of the chief glories of the Venetian school (see fig. 15); as are also in a secondary degree his brother Gentile and his pupil Vittore
Carpaccio. In the following century Venice possessed a school which for glory of colour and technical power has never been rivalled, though it soon lost the sweet religious sentiment of the ear lier Venetians. The chief names of this epoch are Palma
Vecchio, Giorgione,
Titian (see fig. 16), and Lorenzo Lotto,
—the last a magnifi cent portrait painter, a branch of art in which Venice occu pied the highest rank. In the 16th century Tintoretto and Paul Veronese were supreme (see fig. 17). In the 17th and 18th centuries
Venice produced some fairly good work.
The Brescian school has bequeathed two very illustrious names,—Moretto and his pupil Moroni, both portrait painters of extraordinary power during the 16th century (see fig. 18). Mo retto also painted some fine large altar-pieces, remark able for their deli cate silver - grey tones and refined modelling. Ro-
manino was an ex tremely able painter of frescos as well as of easel pictures.
The school of Verona, which existed from the 13th to the 17th century, contains few names of highest importance; except that of Pisanello, the chief were painters of the end of the 15th and the early part of the 16th century, as Domenico and Francesco Morone, Bonsignori, Girolamo dai Libri, and Cavaz- zola. Paul Veronese, though at first he painted in his native town, soon attached himself to the Venetian school.
Ferrara possessed a small native school in the 15th and 16th centuries, Cosimo Tura, Ercole Grandi, Dosso Dossi, and Garofalo being among the chief artists. The paintings of this school are often vigorous in drawing, but rather mannered, and usually somewhat hard in colour. After
1470 there was an intimate connexion between the schools of Ferrara and Bologna.
The Bologna school existed, though not in a very characteristic form, in the 14th century.
Francia and Lorenzo Costa of Ferrara were its chief painters at the end of the 15th century (see fig.
19). It was, however, in the 16th and 17th centuries that Bologna took a leading place as a school of Italian painting, the beginning of which dates from about 1480, when several able painters from Ferrara settled in Bologna. The three Caracci, Guido (see fig. 20), Domenichino, and Guercino were the most admired painters of their time, and continued to be esteemed far beyond their real value till about the middle of the 19th century. Since then, however, the strong reaction in favour of earlier art has gone to the other extreme, and the real merits of the Bolognese school, such as their powerful drawing and skilful though visibly scholastic composition, are now usually overlooked.
Both Modena and Parma possessed mediocre painters in the 14th and 15th centuries. In the 16th Correggio and his pupil Parmigiano attained to a very high degree of popularity. Correggio, who was largely influenced by the Ferrara-Bologna school, is sometimes weak in drawing and affected in composition, but will always be esteemed for the rich softness of his modelling and the delicate pearly tone of his flesh tints. Fig. 21 is an excellent example of his style, though much injured by repainting.
The small school of Cremona occupies only a subordinate position. Boccaccino was its ablest painter; his rare works are remarkable for conscientious finish, combined with some provincial mannerism.
In the 15th and early part of the 16th century Milan had one of the most important schools in Italy.
Its first member of any note was Vincenzo Foppa, who was painting in 1457 and was the founder of the early school. Ambrogio Borgognone (born c . 1455) was an artist of great merit and strong religious sentiment. He followed in the footsteps of Foppa, and his pictures are remarkable for the calm beauty of the faces, and for their delicate colour (see fig.
22), which recalls the manner of Piero della Francesca. Leonardo da Vinci, though trained in Florence, may be said to have created the later Milanese school.
Fig. 23 shows one of the very few pictures by his hand which still exist. The marvellous and almost universal genius of Leonardo caused his influence to be powerfully extended, not only among his immediate pupils, but also among almost all the Lombard painters of his own and the succeeding generation.
His closest followers were Salaino, Luini, Cesare da Sesto,
Beltraffio, and Marco d’Oggiono, and in a lesser degree Andrea Solario,
Gaudenzio Ferrari, and Sodoma, who introduced a new style of painting into Siena. Solario also studied in Flanders, and in Venice under Gian. Bellini, so that a curiously composite style is visible in some of his magnificent portraits (see fig. 24). Most of the pictures and many drawings usually attributed to Da Vinci are really the work of his pupils and imitators. Luini, in his magnificent frescos, was one of the last painters who preserved the religious dignity and simplicity of the older mediaeval schools. Fresco painting was practised by the Milanese after it had been generally abandoned elsewhere. Rome has always been remarkable for its absence of native talent in any of the fine arts, and nearly all the members of the so - called Roman school came from other cities. This school at first consisted of the personal pupils of Raphael,—
Fran. Penni, Da Imola, Giulio Romano, and Del Vaga.
Sassoferrato and Carlo Maratta were feeble but very popular painters in the 17th century.
The early history of the Neapolitan school is mostly mythical; it had no individual existence till the 16th century, and then chiefly in the person of Caravaggio. During the 15th century many works of the Van Eycks and other Flemish painters were imported into Naples; some of these were afterwards claimed by the vanity of native writers as paintings by early Neapolitan artists, for whom imaginary names and histories were invented.
The Spaniard Ribera,
Salvator Rosa, and Giordano were its chief members in the 17th century.
2. German.
It was especially at Cologne in Westphalia and in the Rhine provinces generally that German painting was developed at an early time. William of Cologne, who died about 1378, painted panels with much delicacy and richness of colour (see fig. 25). A number of large and highly finished altarpieces were painted in this part of Germany during the 15th century, but the names of very few of the Painters of that time are known. Artists such as Schongauer,
Von Meckenen, Cranach, and others were more at home in the engraving of copper and wood than in painting, and to some extent the same might be said of Albert Durer, an artist of the highest and most varied talents, who especially excelled as a portrait painter (sec fig. 26).
The Hans Holbeins, father and son, especially the latter, attained the highest rank as portrait painters; nothing can exceed the vivid truthfulness and exquisite workmanship of the portraits by the younger Holbein (see fig. 27), who also painted very beautiful religious pictures. Since his time Germany has produced few noteworthy painters. In the 19th century Overbeck was remarkable for an attempt to revive the long dead religious spirit in painting, and he; attained much popularity, which, however, has now almost wholly died away.
3. Flemish.
Hubert and Jan van Eyck, who were painting at the beginning of the 15th century, were artists of the very highest rank; with their unrivalled technical skill, their exquisite finish, and the splendour of their colour, they produced works which in some respects even surpassed those of any of the Italian painters. Probably no other artists ever lavished time and patient labour quite to the same extent to which Jan van Eyck did upon some of his works, such as the Arnolfini and other portraits in the
National Gallery (see fig. 28), and the Madonna with the kneeling Donor in the Louvre. This last is one of the loveliest pictures in the world, both as a figure painting and from its exquisite miniature landscape and town in the distance, all glowing with the warm light of the setting sun. The elder Van der Werden was a most able pupil of the Van Eycks; he occasionally practised a very different technical method from that usually employed in Flanders,— that is to say, he painted in pure tempera colours on un-primed linen, the flesh tints especially being laid on extremely thin, so that the texture of the linen remains unhidden. Other colours, such as a smalto blue used for draperies, are applied in greater body, and the whole is left uncovered by any varnish. A very perfect example of this exists in the National Gallery (see fig. 29). The special method used with such success by the Van Eycks and their school was to paint the whole pic ture carefully in tem pera and then to glaze it over in trans parent oil colours; the use of oil as a medium was com mon in the 13th century and even earlier (see Mural Decoration). To the school of the
Van Eycks belong a number of other very talented point ers, who inherited much of their mar vellous delicacy of finish and richness of colour; the chief of these were Memling, Van der Meire, and the younger Van der Weyden, to whom is attributed No. 654 in the National Gallery (see fig. 30). The colour of this lovely picture is magnificent beyond all description. Quintin Matsys ( Massys) and
Gheerardt David also produced works of great beauty and ex traordinary finished execution.
At the beginning of the 16th century
Flemish art began to lose rapidly in vigour, a weaker style being substituted under the influence of Italy. To this period belong
Mabuse, Van Orley, and Patinir, who ap pear to have been special admirers of
Raphael’s latest man ner. In the latter half of the century Antonij
Mor, usually known as Antonio Moro, was a portrait painter of the very highest rank. A por trait of Queen Mary of England at Madrid, and one of a youth of the Farnese family at Parma, are real masterpieces of portraiture. He spent some time in England. The Breughel family in the 16th and 17th centuries produced feeble works finished with microscopic detail·
Rubens and his pupil Vandyck in the 17th century were among the greatest portrait pointers the world has ever seen (see figs. 31 and 32), and had many able followers on the Continent and in Eng land.
4. Dutch
This school was chiefly remarkable for its jointers of subjects, often treated with a very ignoble realism, especially by the various members of the Teniers family. Rembrandt, the greatest painter of the school, developed a quite original style, remarkable for the force shown in his effective treatment of light and shade.
The vigorous life and technical skill shown in some of his portraits have never been surpassed (see fig.
33). As a rule, however, he cared but little for colour, and used the etching needle with special enjoyment and dexterity. Terburg, Gerhard Don ( Douw ), and Wouwerman had more sense of beauty, and worked with the most miniature - like delicacy. Another school excelled in landscape, especially Ruysdael and Hobbema (see figs. 34 and 35). Vandevelde was remarkable for his sea-pieces, and Paul Potter for quiet pastoral scenes with exquisitely painted cattle. Throughout the 17th century the painters of the Dutch school far outnumbered those of any other, and many of them reached a very fair average of skill.
5. Spanish.
The early Spanish painters of the 15th and 16th centuries were merely feeble imitators of Italian art. Many of them, such as Juan de
Juanes, studied in
Italy. Ribalta and
Zurbaran were per haps the first able artists who deve loped a national style. The latter is remarkable for his paintings of monks; fig. 36 shows one of the best examples.
His large altarpieces are less successful.
Velazquez, one of the greatest masters of skilful execution the world has seen, was alike great in portraiture (see fig. 37) and in large figure subjects. His early religious paintings, executed under the influence of Ribalta, are far inferior to his later works, the best of which are at Madrid. Murillo is usually rather undervalued; he was very unequal in his work, and is well represented nowhere except at Seville.
No words can describe the exquisite religious beauty and pathos of his great picture of Christ on the Cross bending down to embrace St Francis. Goya, who lived into the
19th century, was an artist of great power, haunted by a hideous imagination. Fortuny, a very clever young painter, who died in Rome in 1874, was remarkable for his daring use of the most brilliant colour, with which his pictures are studded like a mosaic. His success has caused him to have countless imitators, most of whom reproduce the faults rather than the merits of his work. His influence on modern Continental art has been very great.
6. French.
French art, like that of Spain, was almost wholly under Italian influence during the 15th and 16th centuries. Nicolas Poussin, in the 17th century, was the first to develop a native style, though he was much influenced by Titian. His best works are bacchanalian scenes, of which one of the finest is in the National Gallery (see fig. 38).
When at his best his flesh painting resembles that of Titian, but it is frequently marred by unpleasant hot colouring. Claude Lorrain is remarkable for his beautiful and imaginative landscapes,—often wanting in a real study of nature (see fig. 39). His finest works are in
England (see p. 445). Throughout the 18th century the French school was very prolific, but shared the mediocrity of the age, the corruption and artificiality of which impressed themselves strongly on the painting of the time. The most popular artists of that century were Watteau, Boucher, Greuze, Claude Vernet, Fragonard, and David, the reviver of the pseudo-classic style. In the first half of the 19th century Prud’hon, Ingres, Horace Vernet, and Delaroche—artists of only moderate merit—were in great repute, and more deservedly the very brilliant landscape painter Rousseau. Millet, though little valued during his lifetime, is now highly appreciated. Regnault, a very able painter, who while yet young was killed at the siege of Paris in 1871, belongs to the latest development of French art. At present (1886) Paris possesses by far the most important school of art existing, and French painters on the whole are supreme in power of drawing and in technical skill. Unhappily these great merits are often counterbalanced by false sentimentalism or excessive realism, and especially by gross sensuality. Art in France—that is, in Paris—is now in a state of the most prolific activity, and is branching out into new and startling phases, such as the impressionist style, in which form is suppressed for the sake of colour, and the naturalist school, which leans rather to what is ugly or even loathsome; to the latter belong some of the technically ablest painters alive. As in Spain and Italy, the influence of Fortuny is strong in Paris, and Parisian influence now extends very widely, as the École des Beaux-Arts is resorted to by art students from all countries except Germany.
7. British.
The modern British school begins with the painters of miniature portraits in the 16 th and 17th centuries, among whom the earliest were Nicholas Hilliard and Isaac Oliver, artists of some note in the reign of Elizabeth. Many very beautiful miniatures were produced by them and by the younger Peter Oliver, who rose into celebrity under the Commonwealth.
Other able portrait painters of the 17th century were the Scotch Jamesone, a pupil of Rubens, William Dobson, a pupil of Vandyck, and Samuel Cooper; but the chief court painters after the Restoration were the Flemish Sir Peter Lely and Sir Godfrey Kneller, whose influence on art in England was disastrous. The 18th century produced many painters of the highest merit, as Hogarth, who stands unrivalled as a caricaturist and moralist, Reynolds and his rival Gainsborough, notable among the chief portrait painters of the world (see figs. 40 and
41), and Richard Wilson, the founder of the English school of landscape, the chief artistic speciality of the country. The three brothers Smith of Chichester, Gainsborough, and later in the century John (Old)
Crome of Norwich and James Ward, were all landscape painters of great ability. England has since the 18th century been specially famed for its school of water-colour painters, of which Paul Sandby was one of the founders; he was followed by Wheatley, Webber, Girtin, and Prout. Sir Henry Raeburn was a Scottish portrait painter of the highest rank (see fig. 42), but was far less admired in England than the very feeble Lawrence. Little can be said in favour of many of the most popular painters of that time, as West, Barry, Fuseli, Northcote, and Shee, who practised what was considered the highest branches of art, such as historical painting.
William Blake, in spite of his wonderful poetical and imaginative power, lived and died with very inadequate recognition. To the first half of the 19th century belong Turner, the greatest of all landscape painters (see fig. 43), and his very able contemporaries Constable, J. J. Chalon, Copley Fielding, and Stan- field. Scotland produced two of the chief painters of this time—Sir William Allan and Sir David Wilkie. Mulready was a fine draughtsman, skilful in composition, but weak in colour. Etty’s scholastic drawing recalls the merits and faults of the Bolognese school, and he is frequently very fine in colour. Eastlake was weak in drawing and feeble in composition. Sir Edwin Landseer excelled in animal painting, especially in his rendering of the texture of hair and fur, but was frequently rather harsh in colour and commonplace in motive. David Roberts is worthy of note for his very clever watercolours of architectural scenes, J. F. Lewis for his ex quisitely finished Oriental subjects, and J. S. Raven for his grand and imaginative landscapes, which, however, are very little known. Dante Gabriel Rossetti (see fig. 44), who died in 1882, was one of the chief painters of the century, both for the richness of his colouring and for his strong poetical imagination; he was one of the founders of the Pre-Raphaelite “brotherhood ’’ (see Rossetti), whose rise, development, and widespread influence on painting in Britain have been the chief artistic events in this century, and have produced a few painters whose earnestness of purpose and originality of power give them a foremost and absolutely unique position in modern Europe.
List of Painters.
The following lists give the chief painters classified according to their schools in chronological order.
1. Italian Schools. (i.) Lucca and Pisa.
Lotharius and Ranuccius of Lucca, known only from a document, a treaty with Pisa, signed by them in 1228.
Bonaventura Berlinghieri, fl.1235-44. Enrico of Pisa, miniatures, fl.1238. Marco Berlinghieri, miniatures in a MS.
Bible, fl.1250.
Barone Berlinghieri, several crucifixes, 11.1240-84.
Deodati Orlandi of Lucca, 11.1288-1301. Giunta Pisano, first half of 13th cen tury.
Turino Vanni, second half of 14th century.
The names of many other Pisan painters of the later part of the 13th century are recorded in documents, but no paintings by them are known to exist.
(ii.) Siena.
Guido da Siena, 11.1220.
Diotisalvi, 11.1270.
Duccio di Buoninsegna, 11.1300.
Segna di Buoninsegna, fl.1305.
Simone di Martino, c. 1285- c. 1344. Lippo Memmi, d.c.1357.
Berna, ll.early 14th century.
Pietro Lorenzetti, fl. 1320-c. 1348. Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Pietro’s brother,
11.1330, d.c.1348.
Niccolo di Segna, 11.1342.
Jacopo di Mino, 11.1342.
Lippo Vanni, fl.1350-c.1376.
Niccolo di Buonaccorso, H.1350-S8. Bartolo di Fredi, fl.1353-1410.
Luca di Tomme, H.1367.
Paolo di Giovanni, 11.1380.
Meo da Siena, fl.1380.
Taddeo di Bartolo, 1363-1422.
Andrea di Bartolo, fl.1380, d.1428. Gregorio Cecchi, 11.1400.
Martino di Bartolomeo, fl.1403, d.1433. Domenico di Bartolo, d.1449.
Stefano di Giovanni, 11.1428, d.1450. Giovanni di Paolo, c. 1403-1482.
Sano di Pietro, 1406-81.
Lorenzo di Pietro (Vecchietta), 1410-
80, better known as a sculptor. Matteo di Giovanni, 1420-95. Benvenuto di Giovanni, 1436-1518. Francesco di Giorgio, b.1439.
Neroccio di Landi, 1447-1500.
Pietro di Domenico, 1457-1501. Bernardino Fungai, 1460-1516.
Andrea di Niccolo, 1460-1529.
Girolamo di Benvenuto, 1470-1524. Giacomo Pacchiarotto, b.1474.
Girolamo del Pacchia, 1477 to after 1521.
Giov. Ant Bazzi (Sodoma), 1477-1549; though not of the Sienese school, he had much influence on the Sienese painters in the early part of the 16th century.
Baldassare Peruzzi, 14S1-1537. Domenico Micharino (Beccafumi),
1486-1550.
The most important Sienese painters during the second half of the 16th and the 17th centuries were Arcangiolo Salimbeni, Alessandro Casolani, Pietro Savi, Ventura Salimbeni, Francesco Vanni, Francesco Rustici, Rutilio Manetti, Astolfo Petrazzi, and Raffaello Vanni.
(iii.) Florence.
Andrea Tafi, 1213-71294 (Vasari).
Coppo di Marcovaldo, fl. 1261-75.
Gaddo Gaddi, 1239-1312 (according to
Vasari).
Giovanni Gualtieri (Cimabue), 1240-
71302.
Giotto di Bondone, 1276-1337.
Taddeo Gaddi, 71300 to after 1366. Puccio Capauna, first half of 14th century.
Buouamico Christofani (Buffalmacco), first half of 14th century.
Giovanni Jacobi da Milano, fl.1365. Giottino (real name doubtful), first half of 14th century.
Jacopo Landini, c.1310-c.1390.
Agnolo Gaddi (son of Taddeo Gaddi),
14th century.
Andrea Orcagna, c.1316-c.1376, and his brothers Lionardo (fl. 1332-47) and Jacopo.
Francesco Traini, chief of Orcagna’s pupils, fl.1341-45.
Antonio Longhi (Veneziano), fl.1370-87. Gherardo Stamina, 1354, d. after 1406. Giuliano d’Arrigo (Pesello), 1367 to after 1427.
Tommaso di Fini (Masolino), b.1383. Lorenzo Monaco, fl.1404-13.
Fra Angelico (Guido di Vicchio), 1387-
1455.
Andrea del Castagno, 1390-1457.
Paolo Uccello, c.1396-1475.
Tommaso di S. Giovanni (Masaccio),
1402-29.
Fra Lippo Lippi, c.1412-69.
Francesco di Pesello(Pesellino),1422-57. Alesso Baldovinetti, 1422-99.
Domenico Veneziano, fl.1438, d.1461. Benozzo Gozzoli, 1424, d. after 1485. Andrea Verrocchio, 1432-C.1488. Antonio Pollaiuolo, 1433-98.
Cosimo Rosselli, 1439-1507.
Luca Signorelli (Da Cortona), 1441-
1523; his principal pupil was Girolamo Genga, 1476-1551.
Pietro Pollaiuolo, 1443, d. before 1496. Sandro Botticelli, 1447-1515.
Domenico Bigordi (Ghirlandaio), 1449-
94. His works were closely imitated by his pupil and brother-in-law Bastiano Mainardi.
Lorenzo di Credi, 1459-1537. His chief scholar was Sogliani, 1492-1544.
Filippino Lippi, 1460-1504.
Piero di Cosimo, 1462-1521.
Raflaellino del Garbo, 1466-1524. Francesco Granacci, 1469-1543. Giuliano Bugiardini, 1471-1554. Mariotto Albertinelli, 1474-1515.
Fra Bartolomeo della Po rta, 1475-1517.
Michelangelo Buonarroti, 1475-1564. Francesco di Cristofano (Francia
Bigio), 1482-1525.
Ridolfo Ghirlandaio, 1483-1560.
Andrea del Sarto, 1487-1531. His scholar Puligo closely imitated his style.
Jacopo Carucci da Pontormo, 1494- 1557.
Giulio Clovio of Dalmatia, miniaturist, 1498-1578.
Angelo Bronzino, 1502-72.
Marcello Venusti, d.c.l580.
Daniele da Volterra, 1509-66.
Francesco de’ Rossi (called Del Salvi-
ati), 1510-63.
Giorgio Vasari, art historian, 1512-74. Alessandro Allori, 1535-1607.
Orazio Lomi de’ Gentileschi, 1562-1646. Cristoforo Allori, 1577-1621.
Carlo Dolci, 1616-86.
The other Florentine painters of the later part of the 16th and 17th centuries are of little importance.
(iv.) Umbria.
Oderisio of Gubbio, miniaturist (Dante, Pur., xi. 79), fl.1264-c.1299.
Guido Palmerucci (Gubbio), 1280-c.
1345.
Allegretto Nuzi, fl. 1346-85.
Gentile da Fabriano, b. between 1360
and 1370, d.1450.
Ottaviano Nelli, fl. 1410-34.
Lorenzo da San Severino, b.l374, fl.
1400.
Piero Borghese (Della Francesca), c.
1415 to after 1494.
Fra Carnovale, pupil of P. Borghese, second half of 15th century.
Benedetto Bonfigli, fl.1450-96.
Niccolo of Foligno, fl. 1458-99.
Lorenzo da San Severino the younger, fl. 1480-96.
Melozzo da Forli, 1438-94.
Fiorenzo di Lorenzo, fl. 1470-99. Giovanni Santi (father of Raphael), pupil of Melozzo da Forli, d.1494. Pietro Vannucci (Perugino), 1446-1524. Bernardino di Betto (Pinturicchio),
1454-1513.
Marco Palmezzano of Forli, c.1456, d. after 1537.
Andrea Alovigi (L’Ingegno), fl.1484. Lodovico Angeli, fl.1481-1506.
Giovanni di Pietro (Lo Spagna), fl.1503, d. in or before 1530.
Giannicola Manni, fl.1493, d.1544. Timoteo Viti, 1469-1523.
Raphael Sanzio, 1483-1520; belonged to the Perugian school only during the first few years of his career.
Less important Umbrian painters of the 15th century were Giov. Boccati, Girolamo di Giovanni, Matteo da Gualdo, Bartolomeo di Tommaso, and Pietro Antonio, also a number of third-rate painters who belonged to the school of Perugino.
(v.) Padua.
Guariento, fl. 1316-65.
Justus of Padua (Giusto Giovanni), c. 1330-1400, apparently a follower of Giotto.
Francesco Squarcione, 1394-1474. Gregorio Schiavone, second half of 15th century.
Andrea Mantegna, 1431-1506. His chief pupils were his son Francesco (b. c. 1470, died after 1517), Carlo (called) del Mantegna, Giov. Fran. Carotto, and Francesco Bonsignori of Verona (1455-1519).
Bartolomeo Montagna (fl.1487, d.1523), a pupil of Mantegna and Gian. Bellini, founded a school at Vicenza, to which belonged Giovanni Speranza and Benedetto Montagna, the latter an able engraver.
(vi.) Arezzo.
Margaritone di Magnano (according to Vasari), 1216-93.
Mantano di Arezzo, fl. 1305-10.
Jacopo di Casentino, c.1310-c.1390. Spinello di Luca (∆retino), chief pupil of Casentino, l0 c.1330-1410.
Niccolo di Pietro Gerini, d. before 1389. His son Lorenzo was also a painter.
Lorenzo di Bicci, fl.1370-1409.
Parri Spinelli, early 15th century. Bicci di Lorenzo, fl.1420, d.1452. Bartolomeo della Gatta, c.1410-91. His pupils Domenico Pecori and Niccolo Soggi were men of but little talent.
(vii.) Venice.
Niccolo Semitecolo, fl.1351-1400. Lorenzo Veneziano, fl. 1357-79.
Stefano Veneziano, fl. 1369-81. Jacobello del Fiore, fl.1400-39. Johannes Alemannus, probably of
Cologne, fl.l440 sq.
Jacopo Bellini, 1395-1470; and his two sons—
Gentile Bellini (1421-1507) and Giovanni Bellini (1426-1516). Gio vanni's closest imitator was Niccolo Rondinelli.
Giovanni Vivarini of Murano, fl.1440-47. Antonio Vivarini, fl.1440-70. Bartolomeo Vivarini, fl.1459-98.
Alvise Vivarini, fl.1464-1503.
Antonello da Messina, c. 1444-c. 1493. Carlo Crivelli, fl.1468 to after 1500. Mansueti, fl. 1494-1500.
Vittore Carpaccio, c.1450 to after 1522
His chief pupil was Lazzaro Sebastiani.
Marco Marziale, fl.1492-1507.
Marco Basaiti, fl. 1470-1520.
Francesco Torbido (Moro), 1486-1546. Vicenzo Catena, fl.1495, d. after 1531. Ciuιa da Conegliano, fl.1489-1517. Macrino d’Alba, fl.1496-1508. Bartolomeo Veneziano, fl.c. 1505-30. Marco Belli, fl.1511.
Francesco Bissolo, fl.1500-28.
Pellegrino da San Daniele, c.1465-1547- Andrea Previtali, fl.1506, d.1528. Lorenzo Lotto, c.1476-1555.
Giorgio Barbarelli (Giorgione), 1477-
1511.
Tiziano Vecellio, 1477-1576.
Jacopo Palma (Vecchio), 1480-1528. Giov. Ant. Licinio (Pordenone), 1483-
1539.
Sebastiano Luciani (Del Piombo), 1485- 1547.
Girolamo da Treviso, 1497-1544. Bonifacio. There were three painters of this name,—Bonifacio of Verona, d.1540; another Veronese Bonifacio, d.1553, both pupils of Palma Vecchio, and a Venetian, who was painting after 1579, probably a son of one of the elder Bonifacios.
Girolamo da Santacroce, fl.1520-48. Paris Bordone, 1500-71.
Jacopo da Ponte (Bassano), 1510-92.
Four of his sons were painters.
Jacopo Robusti (Tintoretto), 1512-94. Bernardino da Pordenone, 1520-70. Andrea Schiavone, 1522-82.
Paolo Cagliari (Veronese), 1528-88. Battista Zelotti, c.1532-92.
Jacopo Palma (Giovane), 1544-1628. Alessandro Varotari (Padovanino), 1590-
1650.
Sebastiano Ricci, 1660-1734.
Giov. Batt. Tiepolo, 1696-1770.
Antonio Canale (Canaletto), 1697-1768. Francesco Zuccherelli, 1702-93. Francesco Guardi, 1712-93.
Bernardo Bellotto, 1720-80, nephew of
Canaletto and a close imitator of his style.
(viii.) Brescia.
Vincenzo Foppa, 11.1450-66 (see also Milan).
Vincenzo Civerchio of Crema, fl.1495- 1540.
Fioravante Ferramola, end of 15th cent. Girolamo Romani (Il Romanino), c.
1486-c. 1566.
Girolamo Savoldo, c.1487 to after 1540. Alessandro Buonvicino (Moretto), 1498-
1555.
Giov. Batt. Moroni of Bergamo, c.1525- 78.
(ix.) Verona.
Turone da Verona, fl.1360.
Altichiero da Zevio and Giacomo degli
Avanzi, 14th century. The other Veronese painters of the 14th century were of little artistic power.
Vittore Pisano (Pisanello), 1380 c. 1455. His chief pupils were Stefano da Zevio, Giovanni Oriolo, and Bono of Ferrara (see Ferrara).
Domenico Morone, d. after 1503. Liberale da Verona, 1451-1536. Francesco Bonsignori, 1455-1519. Niccolo Giolfino, c.1465 to after 1518. Francesco Morone, 1473-1529.
Girolamo dai Libri, 1474-1556.
Paolo Morando (Cavazzola), 1486-1522.
Paolo Veronese and his imitator
Battista Zelotti, a native of Verona, belong rather to the Venetian school.
(x.) Ferrara.
Cosimo Tura, 1430-? 1496.
Francesco Cossa, latter part of 15th century.
Bono da Ferrara, fl.1461, pupil of Pisanello.
Francesco Bianchi, e.1445-1510.
Ercole Grandi (or Roberti), c.1445, d.
before 1513.
Giovanni Oriolo, fl.1449 to after 1461, pupil of Pisanello.
Lorenzo Costa, 1460-1535, belongs rather to the Bolognese school.
Gian. Battista Bartucci, fl.e.1506. Dosso Dossi, 1480-1560. His brother
Gianbattista was also a painter.
Lodovico Mazzolino da Ferrara, 1478-? 1530.
Francesco Zaganelli da Cotignola, fl. 1505-18, and his brother Bernardino.
Benvenuto Tisio (Garofalo), 1481-1559. Giovanni Battista Benvenuti (L’Orto-
lano), early part of 16th century.
Girolamo Carpi, 1501-56.
(xi.) Bologna.
Guido da Bologna, fl.H77.
Ventura, fl.1197-1217.
Ursone, fl.1226-48. Vitale da Bologna, fl. 1320-50.
Lippo Dalmasii, fl.1376 to after 1410. Simone (called) de' Crocifissi, fl.1370. Giacomo degli Avanzi, fl. later part of
14th century, also classed with Veronese school.
Jacopo di Paolo, early 15th century. Marco Zoppo, fl.1471-98.
Francesco Raibolini (called Francia after his master), c. 1450-1517.
Lorenzo Costa of Ferrara, 1460-1535. Francesco Primatiecio, 1504-70. Ludovico Caracci, 1555-1619.
Agostino Caracci, 1558-1601.
Annibale Caracci, 1560-1609.
Guido Reni, 1575-1642.
Francesco Albani, 1578-1660.
Domenico Zampieri (Domenichino),
1581-1641.
Francesco Barbieri (Guercino), 1591- 1666.
Guido Cagnaccio, 1601-81.
Pier Fran. Mola, 1612-68.
Elisabetta Sirani, 1638-65.
(xii.) Modena and Parma.
Tommaso da Modena, fl. 1350-60. Barnabo da Modena, fl.1360-80. Bartolomeo Grossi, fl.1462.
Jacopo Loschi, fl.c.1460.
Cristoforo Caselli, fl.1499.
Lodovico da Parma, pupil of Francia of Bologna, early 16th century.
Mazzuola, three brothers, Michele, Pierilario, and Filippo, early 16th century.
Antonio Allegri (Correggio), 1493-1534, closely connected with the Ferrara school.
Francesco Mazzuola (Parmigiano), 1504-40. His pupil Girolamo Mazzuola closely imitated his works.
(xiii.) Cremona.
Francesco Tacconi, fl.1464-90.
Altobello Melone, fl.1515-20.
Boccaccio Boccaccino, fl.1496, d.1525. Giulio Campi, 1500-72.
(xiv.) Milan.
Vincenzo Foppa, fl.1450-66 (see also Brescia).
Ambrogio Bevilacqua, fl.1486.
Vincenzo Civerchio (see Brescia), closely connected with early Milanese school.
Francesco Bianchi (Il Frare), 1447-1510. Bernardo Zenale da Treviglio, d. after
1521.
Leonardo da Vinci, 1452-1519. To his school belong Bernardino Luini (c. 1470 to after 1530), Sodoma (1477- 1549), Andrea da Solario (c. 1458 to after 1515), and more directly Gian. Pietrino, Ambrogio Preda, Cesare da Sesto (1480-1521), Marco d’Oggiono (c. 1470-1549), Andrea Salaino, and Giov. Ant. Beltrafflo (1467-1516).
Ambrogio da Fossano (Borgognone), c. 1455-1523; his two brothers were his pupils and assistants.
Bartolomeo Suardi (Bramantino) (fl. 1495-1529) and
Gaudenzio Ferrari (1485-1549) were also influenced by Leonardo. Ferrari’s chief pupils were :—
Bernardino Lanini (c.l508-c.1578) and Giov. Paolo Lomazzo, the Milanese art historian, whose Trattato della Pintura was published in 1584. Ambrogio Figino was an able scholar of Lomazzo, together with Cristoforo Ciocca.
Ercole Procaccini, 1520-90.
Bernardino Campi, 1522-90.
Camillo Procaccini, 1546-1626.
Giov. Batt. Crespi, 1557-1633.
A number of inferior Milanese painters lived in the 16th century.
(xv.) Rome.
Raphael Sanzio, 1483-1520, who in his early youth belonged first to the Perugian and then to the Florentine school, was the founder of the so-called Roman school, which at first consisted almost wholly of his pupils.
Giov. Fran. Penni (Il Fattore), 1488- 1528.
Innocenzo da Imola, 1490-1549. Polidoro da Caravaggio, 1495-1543. Giulio Pippi de’ Giannuzzi (Romano),
1498-1546.
Perino del Vaga, 1500-47.
Federigo Barocci, 1528-1612.
Cesare d’Arpino, 1567-1640.
Bartolomeo Schedone, 1580-1615.
Giov. Lanfranco, 1581-1647.
Bart. Manfredi, 1581-1617.
Pietro da Cortona, 1596-1669.
Andrea Sacchi, 1598-1661.
Gianbattista Salvi (Sassoferrato), 1605-
85.
Carlo Maratta, 1625-1713.
Paolo Pannini, 1691-1764.
(xvi.) Naples.
The names of Simone Napoletano,
Colantonio, and other native painters who were supposed to have worked in the 14th and 15th centuries appear to be those of wholly mythical personages. Michelangelo da Caravaggio, 1569-1609. Giuseppe Ribera (Lo Spagnaletto), 1588-
?1656.
Aniello Falcone, 1594-1665.
Salvator Rosa, 1615-73.
Luca Giordano, 1632-1705.
2. German School.
Wilhelm of Herle or William of
Cologne, fl.1358, d.c.1378.
Stephen Lochner, fl.1442, d.1451. Master of Liesborn, fl.1465.
Michael Wohlgemuth, 1434-1519. Master of the Lyversberg Passion, fl. 1463-80.
Israel von Meckenen, c.1440-1503. Martin Schongauer, 1450-88.
Matthias Grünewald, c,1460 to after 1529.
Master Christophorus, fl. 1500-10. Master of the Death of the Virgin, fl. 1515, d.1556.
Hans Holbein the elder, c. 1460-1523, and his brother Sigmund Holbein, c. 1465 to after 1540.
Albrecht Dürer, 1471-1528.
Lucas Cranach, 1472-1553.
Hans Burckmair, 1473-1531.
Hans Fuss (Von Kuhnbach), pupil of A. Dürer, d.c.1522.
Albrecht Altdorfer, b. before 1480-153S. Hans Leonhard Schaufelin, 1490-1540. Hans Holbein the younger, 1497-1543. Hans Sebald Beham, 1500-50, and his brother Barthel Beham, 1502-c. 1540. Heinrich Aldegrever, 1502-58.
Virgil Solis, 1514-62.
Lucas Cranach the younger, 1515-86. Jost. Amman, 1531-91.
Heinrich Golzius, 1558-1617.
Johann Rottenhammer, 1564-1623. Adam Elshaimer, 1574-1620.
Joachim von Sandrart, 1606-88. Balthasar Denner, 1685-1747.
Christ. Will. Ernst Dietrich, 1712-74. Anton Raphael Mengs, 1728-78.
Peter von Cornelius, 1783-1867.
Johann Fried. Overbeck, 1789-1869. Fried. Wil. von Schadow, 1789-1862. Julius Schnorr, 1794-1872.
Wilhelm von Kaulbach, 1805-74.
Karl Fried. Lessing, 1808-80.
3. Flemish School.
Melchior Broederlam, fl.1382-c.1400. Hubert van Eyck, b.c.1366, d.after 1426. Jan van Eyck, younger brother of
Hubert, d. after 1440.
Margaret van Eyck, a younger sister of the above, died soon after Hubert.
Petrus Christus, a pupil of the Van Eycks, fl. 1447-71.
Dierick Bouts, e.1391-1475.
Roger van der Weyden the elder, c. 1400-64.
Gerard van der Meire, c.1410 to after 1474.
Hans Memling, c.1430, d. before 1495. Roger van der Weyden the younger, c. 1450-1529.
Hugo van der Goes, fl.1467, d.l482. Justus of Ghent, fl.1451-70.
Gheerardt David, c.1455-1523.
Quintin Matsys, 1466-1531.
Jan Gossart de Mabuse, 1470-1532. Bernard van Orley, 1470-1541.
Jan Mostert, 1474-1556.
Henri de files, 1480-c. 1550.
Joachim da Patinir, b. between 1485 and 1490, d. 1524.
Jan van Schoreel, 1495-1562.
Michiel Coxcie, 1499-1592.
Lambert Lombard (Sustermann), 1506 to after 1566.
Marinus van Romerswale, fl.1535 to after 1567.
Pieter Pourbus, 1510-S3.
Antony Mor (Antonio Moro), 1512-77. Pieter Breughel, c.1520-69.
Paul Bril, 1556-1626.
Pieter Breughel, 1564-1637.
Peter Paul Rubens, 1577-1640.
Frans Snyders, 1579-1657.
Kasper de Crayer, 1582-1669.
David Teniers, 1582-1649.
Jan (called “Velvet”) Breughel, c. 1589-c.l642.
Jacob Jordaens, 1593-1678.
Lucas van Uden, 1595-1672.
Anton Vandyck, 1599-1641.
Adriaan van Utrecht, 1599-1652. Philippe de Champaigne, 1602-74.
Jan van Essen, 1606-65.
Jan Fyt, 1609-61.
David Teniers the younger, 1610-94. Jacobus van Artois, 1613 to after 1684. Gonzales Coques, 1614-84.
Pieter van der Faes (Sir Peter Lely), 1618-80.
Abraham Teniers, 1629-71.
Gerard de Lairesse, 1641-1711.
Jean François Millet, 1642-80.
Cornells Huysmans, 1648-1727.
Jan van Bloemen, 1662-1740.
A large number of Flemish painters, many of them pupils of Rubens, lived in the 17th century, but they are of little importance.
4. Dutch School.
Albert van Ouwater, early part of 15th century.
Gerard of Haarlem, end of 15th century. Hieronymus van Aeken, c. 1460-1518. Lucas (Jacobsz) van Leyden, 1494-1533. Jan van Schoreel, 1495-1562.
Marten van Heemskerck (1498-1574), Cornells van Haarlem (1562-1638), Cornells van Poelenburg (1586-1667) and Gerard van Honthorst (1592-? 1666), though Dutch by birth, were feeble imitators of Italian schools.
Frans Hals, 1584-1666.
Thomas de Keyser, c.l595-c,1660. Cornells Janssen, e.1596-1665.
Jan van Goyen, 1596-1656.
Jan de Heem, 1603-50.
Albert Cuyp, 1605-91.
Rembrandt van Rÿn or Ryn, 1606-69. Emanuel de Witte, 1607-92.
Jan Wynants, d. after 1674.
Gerhard Terburg, 1608-81.
Salomon Koning, 1609-68.
Jan Both c. 1610-56, and his younger brother Andries Both.
Adrian van Ostade, 1610-85.
Ferdinand Bol, 1611-81.
Bart. van der Heist, 1613-70.
Gerhard Dou, 1613-75.
Aart van der Neer, c.1619 to after 1691. Philip de Köninck, 1619-89.
Philip Wouwemιan, 1619-68.
Jan Battista Weenix, 1621-60.
Isaac van Ostade, 1621-49.
Gerbrandt van der∙ Eckhout, 1621-74. Nicholas Berchem, 1624-83.
Paul Potter, 1625-54.
Jacob Ruysdael, 1625-81.
Jan Steen, 1626-79.
Karel Dujardin, 1630-78.
Gabriel Metsu, 1630 to after 1667. Ludolf Backhuizen, 1631-1709.
Nicholas Maes, 1632-93.
Pieter de Hooch, 1632-81.
Jan van der Meer, 1632-95.
Willem Vandevelde the younger, 1633- 1707.
Jan Vandez Capelle, c.1635 to after 1680.
Frans van Mieris the elder, 1635-81. His sons Jan and Willem were both painters.
Melchior de Hondecoeter, 1636-95.
Jan Hackaert, c. 1636-1708.
Jan van der Heyden, 1637-1712. Meindert Hobbema, 1638-1709.
Adrian Vandevelde, 1639-72.
Gaspard Netscher, 1639-84.
Daniel Mytens the younger, c.1644 c.1688.
Jan Weenix, 1644-1719.
Jan van Huchtenburg, 1646-1733.
Van der Plaas, 1647-1704.
Wil. van Mieris, 1662-1744.
Jan van Huysum, 1682-1749.
Frans van Mieris the younger, 1689- 1763.
Jan van Os, 1744-1808.
A large number of mostly third-rate painters existed in the 16th and 17th centuries.
5. Spanish School.
Antonio del Rincon, 1446-1500.
Alonso Beruguete, 1480-1561.
Luis de Vargas, 1502-68.
Juan de Juanes (Vicente Joanes), 1506- 79. His chief pupil was Borras.
Luis de Morales, c.1510-86.
Alonso Sanchez Coello, c. 1512-90. Gasper Becerra, 1520-70.
Francisco de Ribalta, c.1550-1628.
Juan de las Roelas, 1558-1625. Francisco Pacheco, 1571-1654.
Francisco de Herrera the elder, b. 1576, and his son known as Francisco “El Mozo."
Eugenio Caxes, 1577-1642.
Juan de Ribalta, 1597-1628.
Francisco Zurbaran, 1598-1662.
Diego Velazquez de Silva, 1599-1660. Francisco Collantes, 1599-1656. Espinosa, 1600-80.
Alonso Cano, 1601-67.
Juan Carreno de Miranda, 1614-85. Bartolome Esteban Murillo, 1618-82. Juan de Valdes, 1630-91.
Claudio Coello, 1635-93.
Francisco Goya, 1746-1828.
Mariano Fortuny, 1838-74. 6. French School.
René, king of Anjou, 1408-80, learned painting in Italy, and is said to have practised the art in France.
Jean Fouquet, b. between 1415 and 1420, belongs also to the Italian school. Jean Clouet of Tours, 11.1480; his son Jean Clouet the younger, c.1485-1545, and grandson Francois Clouet (Janet). Jean de Gourmont, (1.1557.
Jean Cousin, c.1500-c.1589.
Ambroise Dubois, 1543-1615.
Antoine le Nain, and his brother Louis, fl. 1629-77.
Simon Vouet, 1590-1649.
François Perrier, 1590-1656.
Nicolas Poussin, 1594-1665.
Jacques Stella, 1596-1657.
Jacques Blanchard, 1600-38.
Valentin de Boullongne, 1600-34. Claude Gelée (Lorrain), 1600-82.
Charles Antoine Dufresnoy, 1611-65. Pierre Mignard (Le Romain), 1612-95. Gaspar Dughet (called Poussin after his brother-in-law Nicolas), 1613-75. Eustache le Sueur, 1616-55.
Sébastien Bourdon, 1616-71.
Charles le Brun, 1619-90.
Jacques Courtois (Le Bourguignon), 1621-76.
Jean Jouvenet, 1644-1717.
Jean Baptiste Santerre, 1651-1717.
Inferior French painters who worked in the 17th and 18th centuries were the Boullongne (father and two sons), Nicolas de Largillière, Hyacinthe Rigaud, Nicolas Lancret, Pierre Sub-leyras, Carl van Loo, Claude Vernet, and Madame le Brun.
Antoine Watteau, 1684-1721.
Jean Baptiste Pater, 1699-1736. François Boucher, 1704-70.
Jean Baptiste Greuze, 1725-1805.
Jean Honoré Fragonard, 1732-1806. Jacques Louis David, 1748-1825. He carried to its highest point the dull pseudo-classic style inaugurated by Joseph-Marie Vien, 1716-1809.
Many other painters of fourth-rate talent worked and obtained much popularity throughout the 18th century. Fierce Paul Prud'hon, 1758-1823. François Marius Granet, 1775-1849. Jean Augustin Ingres, 1780-1867. Horace Vernet, 1789-1863.
Théodore Géricault, 1791-1824.
Léopold Robert, 1794-1835.
Ary Scheffer, 1795-1858.
Paul Delaroche, 1797-1856.
Eugène Delacroix, 1799-1863. Alexandre Gabriel Decamps, 1803-60. Théodore Rousseau, 1812-67.
Jean François Millet, 1814-75.
Henri Régnault, 1843-7L
7. British School.
Nicholas Hilliard, 1547-1619 (miniaturist).
Isaac Oliver, 1555-1617 (miniaturist). George Jamesone, 1586-1644, pupil of Rubens (portraits).
Peter Oliver, 1601-60 (miniaturist). Robert Walker, d.c.1660 (portraits). Samuel Cooper, 1609-72 (portraits). John Hoskins, d.1664 (portraits). William Dobson, 1610-46, follower of Vandyck.
Isaac Fuller, d.1672 (portraits).
Henry Stone, 1616-53 (portraits). Robert Streater, 1624-80 (portraits). Henry Anderton, 1630 to after 1665 (portraits).
John Riley, 1646-91 (portraits).
Sir Peter Lely, came to England in 1641. Sir Godfrey Kueller, 1646-1723 (portraits)^
John Greenhill, 1649-76 (portraits). John Michael Wright, c.1655-1700. Jonathan Richardson, 1665-1745 (portraits).
Charles Jervas, 1675-1739 (portraits). Sir James Thornhill, 1676-1734 (wall decoration).
William Aikman, 1682-1731.
William Hogarth, 1697-1764 (satirist).
S. Scott, d.1772.
Francesco Zuccarelli, 1701-88 (landscape).
Thomas Hudson, 1701-79, Reynolds’s master.
James Wootton, d.1765 (animals).
Three brothers Smith of Chichester, 1707-66 (landscape).
Francis Hayman, 1708-66.
Allan Ramsay, 1709-84.
Richard Wilson, 1713-82, founder of the English school of landscape.
Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1723-92 (portraits).
George Stubbs, 1724-1806 (animals). Francesco Bartolozzi, 1725-1815 (engraver).
Francis Cotes, 1725-70.
Paul Sandby, 1725-1809 (water-colour). Thomas Gainsborough, 1727-88 (portraits and landscape).
Nathaniel Hone, 1730-84 (miniatures). Nathaniel Dance, second half of 18th century.
Joseph Wright of Derby, 1734-97 (night scenes).
Geoιge Romney, 1734-1802 (portraits). Johann Zoflany, 1735-1810.
John Singleton Copley, 1737-1815. Benjamin West, 1738-1820.
Richard Cosway, 1740-1821 (miniatures). Angelica Kaufmann, 1741-1807 (portraits).
Hackert, 1741-1800 (water-colour·).
James Barry, 1741-1806.
Henry Fuseli, 1741-1825.
Mary Moser, 1744-1819 (flower painter). David Allan 1744-96.
James Northcote, 1746-1831.
F. Wheatley, 1747-1801 (water-colour). John Smith, 1750-1812 (water-colour). Robert Smirke, 1752-1845.
John Webber, 1752-93 (water-colour). John Cozens, 1752-99 (water-colour). Thomas Bewick, 1753-1828 (wood-engraver).
Sir George Beaumont, 1753-1827 (portraits).
Sir William Beechey, 1753-1839.
Henry Bone, 1755-1834 (miniatures on enamel).
Gilbert Stuart, 1755-1828.
Thomas Stothard, 1755-1834.
Sir Henry Raeburn, 1756-1823 (portraits).
James Gillray, 1757-1815 (caricaturist). William Blake, 1757-1828 (poetry).
T. Rowlandson, 1757-1827 (caricaturist). John Hoppner, 1759-1810.
John Opie, 1761-1807.
Edward Bird, 1762-1819.
Samuel Woodforde, 1763-1817.
George Morland, 1764-1804 (animais).
N. Pococke, 1765-1821.
John (Old) Crome, 1769-1821, founder of the Norwich school of landscape. Sir Thomas Lawrence, 1769-1830 (portraits).
H. Howard, 1769-1847.
James Ward, 1769-1859 (landscape). Thomas Phillips, 1770-1845.
Sir Martin Shee, 1770-1850.
George Clint, 1770-1854.
II. W. Williams, 1773-1829 (classical buildings).
Henry Thomson, 1773-1843.
Thomas Girtin, 1773-1802 (landscape). Thomas Hargreaves, 1775-1846 (miniatures).
Joseph Mallord William Turner, 1775- 1851.
John Constable, 1776-1837 (landscape). John Varley, 1777-1842 (water-colour). John James Chalon, 1777-1854 (landscape).
John Christian Schetky, 1778-1874 (marine).
John Jackson, 1778-1831 (landscape). William Payne, fl.1786-90 (watercolour).
John Thomson, 1778-1840.
James Laurent Agasse of Geneva, c. 1779-1846.
Sir Augustus Callcott, 1779-1844. Andrew Wilson, 1780-1848.
Alfred Chalon, 1780-1860(water-colour). J. 8. Cot man, 1780-1843 (water-colour). John Simpson, 1782-1847.
Sir William Allan, 1782-1850(portraits).
C. Wild, 1782-1835 (water-colour). Thomas Uwins, 1782-1857.
De Wint, 1783-1849 (water-colour). Samuel Prout, 1783-1825 (water-colour). Sir David Wilkie, 1785-1841.
W. Hilton, 1786-1839.
B. R. Haydon, 1786-1846.
Will. Mulready, 1786-1863.
A. Fraser, 1786-1865.
Georgo Jones, 1786-1869.
William Etty, 1787-1849.
Copley Fielding, 1787-1855 (landscape). Sir J. Watson Gordon, 178S-1864.
W. Collins, 1788-1847.
John Martin, 1789-1854 (imaginative landscape).
Sir John Gordon, 1790-1865.
II. P. Briggs, 1792-1844.
John Linnel, b.1792.
Francis Danny, 1793-1861.
David Cox (senior), 1793-1858 (water colour).
Sir Charles Eastlake, 1798-1865.
G. S. Newton, 1794-1835.
C. R. Leslie, 1794-1859.
J. F. Heιτing, 1795-1865.
David Roberts, 1796-1864 (architecture and landscape).
Clarkson Stanlield, 1798-1867 (landscape).
James Holland, 1800-70.
George Cattennole, 1800-68 (watercolour).
William Simson, 1800-47 (water-colour). R. P. Bonington, 1801-28.
Sir Edwin Landseer, 1802-73 (animals). George Lance, 1802-64 (still life).
Sir Francis Grant, 1803-78.
Horatio Macculloch, 1805-67 (land scape).
Sir Daniel Macnee, 1806-82.
William Dyce, 1806-64.
Sir George Harvey, 1806-76.
John Fre<l. Lewis, 1806-76 (Oriental scenes).
Thomas Duncan, 1807-45.
Joseph Nash, 1807-78 (architecture). Aaron Penley, 1807-70 (water-colour). Thomas Creswick, 1811-69 (landscape). Edw. Will. Cooke, 1811-80 (marine). Daniel Maelise, 1811-70.
Will. James Muller, 1812-45 (water colour).
William Brodie, 1815-81.
James Drummond, 1816-77.
A. L. Egg, 1816-63.
John Phillip, 1817-67.
Tiιos. Seddon, 1821-56(Pre-Raphaelite). Samuel Bough, 1822-78 (landscape). Tħos. Leeson Rowbotham, 1823-75
(water-colour).
Dante Gabriel Rossetti, 1828-82 (Pre-Raphaelite).
John Samuel Raven, 1829-77 (landscape).
Picture Galleries of Europe.
The following list gives some indication of the manner in which the existing pictures of various schools are distributed among the chief galleries of Europe.
The National Gallery, London, contains for its size a very large number of highly important pictures of the Italian schools, many of them signed and dated; in fact, as a representative collection, embracing as it does well-chosen specimens of every school and including many paintings of very rare masters, it is hardly surpassed by any gallery in the world. Though weak in paintings of Giotto and his school, it possesses many early Sienese pictures of great interest and exceptional importance (see fig. 1), and a collection unrivalled out of Italy of the works of the best Florentine painters of the 15th century, as Paolo Uccello, Lippo Lippi, Pollaiuolo, Signorelli, Botticelli, Lorenzo di Credi, and others (see fig. 6). Of the very few existing easel pictures by Pisanello the National Gallery contains one (signed), St George and St Anthony. The portrait by Andrea del Sarto is one of his finest works,—full of life and expression and rich in tone. In addition to a large painting on canvas of the school of Michelangelo—Leda and the Swan —the National Gallery possesses two unfinished pictures, a Madonna and Angels and an Entombment of Christ, both of which, in spite of many adverse criticisms, appear to be genuine works of Michelangelo, the former in his early, the latter in his later manner—a very remarkable possession for one gallery, seeing that the only other genuine easel painting by him is the circular panel of the Madonna in the tribune of the Uffizi (Florence). No four pictures could better represent Raphael’s highly varied manners than the miniature Knight’s Dream, the Ansidei Madonna, the St Catherine, and the Garvagh Madonna, which in the dates of their execution cover nearly the whole of his short working life. In the Venetian school the National Gallery is almost unrivalled: it contains a large number of fine examples of Crivelli (see fig. 14),—Venice not possessing one; two rare panels by Marziale, both signed and dated (1500 and 1507); the finest specimens of Giovanni Bellini (see fig. 15) and his school which exist out of Venice; one of Titian’s noblest works,—the Ariadne and Bacchus, finished in 1523 for the duke of Ferrara, together with two other fine pictures of earlier date; and the masterpiece of Sebastiano del Piombo, his Raising of Lazarus, partly designed by Michelangelo. The smaller schools of Ferrara and Cremona are well represented by examples of nearly all their chief painters. Of the Umbrian school the gallery possesses two or rather three important, though much injured, panels by Piero della Francesca (see fig. 10), a fine picture by Fiorenzo di Lorenzo, as well as one of Perugino’s best works, the triptych from the Certosa near Pavia (see fig. 12), and other paintings by him. Correggio is represented by three fine pictures, classical and religious, specimens of unusual excellence (see fig. 21). Of the Bolognese school there are three works by Francia, one signed (see fig. 19), and specimens of the painters of the later school,— Annibale Caracci, Guido (see fig. 20), and others. Paul Veronese’s Dream of St Helena and the group of portraits of the Pisani family, arranged as the scene of the family of Darius before Alexander, are among his finest works. The three pictures by Lotto are excellent examples of his supreme talents in portraiture; and no collection outside Brescia and Bergamo is so rich in the noble portrait pictures of Moretto and his pupil Moroni. Leonardo da Vinci (the rarest of the great masters) is represented by a very beautiful picture which appears to have been partly finished by a pupil; with slight alterations it is the same in design as the Vierge aux Rochers in the Louvre (see fig. 23). Leonardo’s use of almost monochromatic colouring differs strongly from the style of his pupils and imitators Luini, Andrea da Solario (see fig. 24), and Beltraffio, all of whom are represented by excellent and characteristic examples. Of the earlier Milanese school the gallery contains two magnificent examples by Ambrogio Borgognone, —the Marriage of St Catherine especially being a work of the highest importance and beauty (see fig. 22). The gallery possesses rare examples of the early German masters (see fig. 25, by William of Cologne), though it is weak in the works of the later Germans, as Albert Durer, who is represented only by one portrait, which is signed (see fig. 26), and Hans Holbein the younger, who is totally absent except for the noble portrait lent by the duke of Norfolk. The collection is, however, unusually rich in fine examples of early Flemish art,—of the Van Eycks and their school (see fig. 28). The portrait of Jean Arnolfini and his wife (signed and dated) is one of Jan van Eyck’s noblest works on a small scale,—only surpassed, perhaps, by the Madonna and Worshipper in the Louvre. The Entombment of Christ by Van der Weyden the elder (see fig. 29), the three or more examples of Memling, the Exhumation of St Hubert by Dierick Bouts, the Reading Magdalene by Van der Weyden the younger (see fig. 30), and the Saints and Donor by Gheerardt David are all unrivalled examples of these great painters. The delicate little panel of the Madonna by Margaret van Eyck is a work of much interest. The later Flemish and Dutch schools are equally well represented, especially by a number of noble portraits by Rembrandt (see fig. 33), Rubens, and Vandyck; a portrait of an old woman, the “Chapeau de Poil,” and the portrait of Van der Geest (wrongly called Gevartius) are among the finest works of these three masters (see figs. 31 and 32). Hobbema, Ruysdael, De Hooge, Wouwerman, and others of their school are very richly represented (see figs. 34 and 35). Of the Spanish school the National Gallery contains an excellent portrait head of Philip IV. (see fig. 37) by Velazquez, a full-length of the same king, not wholly by his hand, and also two pictures of sacred subjects and a curious boar-hunting scene of much interest, but of inferior beauty. The examples of Murillo, like most out of Seville, are but third-rate specimens of his power. The Kneeling Friar as an example of Zurbaran’s work is unrivalled either in Spain or out of it (see fig. 36). Among the pictures of the French school a number of fine landscapes by Claude Lorrain and a very masterly Bacchanalian Scene by Nicolas Poussin are the most notable (see figs. 38 and 39). The English school is hardly represented in a manner worthy of the chief national collection, but it is supplemented by a large number of fine paintings in the South Kensington Museum. The chief treasures in this branch possessed by the National Gallery are Hogarth’s series of “Marriage à la Mode,” some noble portraits by Reynolds and Gainsborough, and an unrivalled collection of Turner’s works of all periods (see figs. 40, 41, and 43).
The royal gallery at Hampton Court (London), among a large number of inferior paintings, contains some of great value, especially the Baptism of Christ, an early work of Francia, a most magnificent portrait of Andrea Odoni by Lor. Lotto, both signed, and a portrait of a youth attributed to Raphael. The chief treasure of the palace is the grand series of decorative paintings (nine in number) executed in tempera on canvas by Andrea Mantegna in 1485-92 for the duke of Mantua, but much injured by repainting. The equally celebrated cartoons designed by Raphael for tapestry to decorate the Sistine Chapel are now moved to the South Kensington Museum. The gallery also possesses several fine examples of Tintoretto, many good Flemish and Dutch pictures, some small but fine examples of Holbein and his school, and a number of historically interesting works by English painters of the 17th century. The portrait of a Jewish Rabbi by Rembrandt is one of his finest works,—a perfect masterpiece of portraiture.
The Dulwich gallery is especially rich in works of the Dutch school, and contains some noble portraits by Gainsborough and Reynolds, as well as an interesting early work by Raphael, — the predella with seven small subjects painted in 1504 as part of the large altarpiece for the monastery of St Anthony in Perugia; the main part of this large retable, which is the property of the heirs of the duke of Ripalda, has been for many years deposited but not exhibited in the National Gallery. The National Portrait Gallery at Kensington contains many paintings of different schools which are valuable both as works of art and from their interest as portraits. The Royal Academy has placed in the attics of Burlington House its valuable collection of diploma pictures, and in an adjoining room a few treasures of earlier art, among them a large cartoon of the Madonna and St Anne by Leonardo da Vinci,—similar in subject to, but different in design from, an unfinished picture by him in the Louvre, and a copy of his Cenacolo at Milan by his pupil Marco d’Oggiono, of priceless value now that the original is an utter wreck. In the same room is a very beautiful but un finished piece of sculpture by Michelangelo, a circular relief of the Madonna.
England is especially rich in collections of drawings by the old masters. The chief are those in the British Museum, in the Taylor Buildings at Oxford, and in the possession of the Queen and of Mr Malcolm of Poltalloch. Among the collection in Windsor Castle are eighty-seven portraits in red chalk by Holbein, all of wonderful beauty. The celebrated “Liber Veritatis,” a collection of original drawings by Claude Lorrain, is in the possession of the duke of Devonshire at Chatsworth. In Buckingham Palace is a fine collection of paintings of the Flemish and Dutch schools. An almost incredibly large number of fine paintings of all schools are scattered throughout the private galleries of Britain; an account of the chief of these is given by Dr Waagen, Treasures of Art in Britain, London, 1854. But many of the collections described by Dr Waagen have since been moved or dispersed; the Peel and Wynn Ellis pictures have been purchased by the National Gallery, which has also acquired important pictures from the sales of the Eastlake, Barker, Novar, Hamilton, and Blenheim collections. The largest private galleries which still exist in England are those of the duke of Westminster (Grosvenor House), the duke of Sutherland (Stafford House), the earl of Ellesmere (Bridgewater House), and the marquis of Exeter (Burghley House). The public gallery at Liverpool contains some very important Italian pictures, as does also the growing collection in Dublin. The Edinburgh National Gallery possesses a few specimens of early masters, among them part of the great altarpiece by the unknown “Master of Liesborn,” a picture of St Hubert by the “Master of Lyversberg,” some fine Dutch pictures, and Gainsborough’s masterpiece, the portrait of the Hon. Mrs Graham, together with many examples of the excellent portraits by David Allan and Sir Henry Raeburn. In the palace of Holyrood is preserved a very beautiful altarpiece, with portraits of James III. and his queen and other figures. It is supposed to have been painted about 1480 by Van der Goes of the school of the Van Eycks. England is especially rich in the finest examples of Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain; the paintings by the latter in Grosvenor House, the National Gallery, and elsewhere in the country are unrivalled by those of any foreign gallery.
The Louvre is rich in works of nearly all schools, and especially in fine examples of Signorelli, Mantegna, Raphael, Titian, Paul Veronese, Correggio, and the later Bolognese painters. Its chief glory is the possession of some of the very rare works of Da Vinci,— La Vierge aux Rochers, the Virgin and St Anne, and the wonderful portraits of Mona Lisa and La belle Ferronnière. It is chiefly weak in examples of the earlier Venetian painters, not possessing a single genuine work by Giovanni Bellini. It contains some very beautiful frescos by Botticelli and by Luini, and the finest work of Murillo which exists out of Seville,—the Virgin in Glory. The later Flemish and Dutch schools are well represented: the small painting of the Virgin with a kneeling Worshipper by Jan van Eyck is one of the loveliest pictures in the world; but the Louvre is otherwise deficient in paintings of his school. The portraits by Holbein, Rubens, and Vandyck are of great importance. In the French school the Louvre is of course unrivalled: the paintings of Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain are the best among them; but the general average of merit is very low. The Louvre also possesses a magnificent collection of drawings by the old masters.
The Berlin gallery, now rapidly being added to, contains a large number of very important Italian pictures; among them is Signorelli’s finest easel picture (see fig. 8),—a classical scene with Pan and other nude figures playing on pipes, a masterpiece of powerful drawing. The gallery is more especially rich in works of the German, Flemish, and Dutch schools, including six panels from the large altarpiece of the Adoration of the Lamb at Ghent by Hubert and Jan van Eyck. The Dresden gallery is mainly rich in paintings of the Flemish and Dutch schools, but also contains some fine Italian pictures. Raphael’s Madonna di San Sisto is the chief glory of the collection, together with many fine examples of Giorgione, Palma Vecchio, Titian, Paul Veronese, and Correggio, and a number of works of the later Bolognese school. The gallery is especially remarkable for its genuine examples of that very rare master Giorgione. The Pinakothek at Munich possesses some good Italian pictures, among them four by Raphael and a number of fine Titians. It contains a large collection of German, Dutch, and Flemish paintings, with a number of fine portraits by Albert Dürer and Vandyck. It is especially rich in works of Lucas Cranach the elder, of Memling, of Roger van der Weyden, of Wohlgemuth, and of Rembrandt. The Cassel gallery is mainly rich in Flemish and Dutch paintings. The small Wallraf-Richartz Museum at Cologne contains a few paintings of great interest to the student of early German art.
The Belvedere Gallery at Vienna is exceptionally rich in works of the Venetian school, especially of Palma Vecchio, Titian, and Paul Veronese. Holbein, Rubens, Vandyck, and other masters of the Flemish and Dutch schools are richly represented, Vienna also contains some large private galleries, chiefly rich in Flemish and Dutch pictures, and a magnificent collection of drawings by old masters. The Budapest gallery (Eszterhazy collection) contains many fine Venetian and some Florentine pictures, with a large number of Flemish and Dutch works.
The Gallery of the Hermitage at St Petersburg is one of the largest and most important in Europe; though weak in pictures of the early Italian schools, it contains fine examples of Luini, Raphael, Titian, Paul Veronese, and the Bolognese school, and is extraordinarily rich in paintings by Murillo, Rembrandt, Rubens, Vandyck, and the later Flemish and Dutch schools generally.
The many galleries of Belgium and Holland are mostly rich in the works of local schools. Antwerp possesses the masterpieces of Rubens and many fine examples of his pupil Vandyck. The church of St Bavon at Ghent contains the masterpiece of the Van Eycks, the main part of a large altarpiece in many panels with the Adoration of the Lamb as the central subject; this is only rivalled in point of size and beauty by the Fountain of Salvation painted by Jan van Eyck about 1432, and now in the museum of the Santissima Trinidad at Madrid. Among the many fine Flemish and Dutch pictures in the museum at The Hague is a half-length of an unknown lady by Holbein, which is one of the most beautiful portraits in the world (see fig. 27).
The gallery of Madrid is in some respects unrivalled both from its widely representative character—at least as regards the later schools—and from the number of exceptional masterpieces which it contains; it possesses, however, very few specimens of Italian art earlier than 1500. In the works of the later Italian masters it is very rich, possessing four important works by Raphael,—the Madonna called La Perla (once at Hampton Court in the collection of Charles I. ), the Virgin of the Fish, the Virgin of the Rose, and Christ on His way to Calvary (Lo Spasimo). No other gallery contains so many fine specimens of Titian’s paintings; it includes a scene of Bacchus at Naxos, with a nude sleeping figure of Ariadne in the foreground, the companion to the magnificent Ariadne in the English National Gallery, but surpassing it in beauty and perfection of preservation. The third picture of the trio painted for the duke of Ferrara is also at Madrid; it is known as the Sacrifice to Fecundity, and consists of a large group of nude infants sporting or sleeping, a perfect miracle for its wealth of colour and unrivalled flesh painting. In addition to these wonderful pictures there are some splendid portraits by Titian, and many of his later works, showing a sad decadence in his old age. The gallery also contains many important works of Paul Veronese and others of the Venetian school, and a very fine collection of Flemish and Dutch pictures, including a number of noble portraits by Antonio Moro, Rubens, and Vandyck, together with some of Claude Lorrain’s best landscapes. In the Spanish schools the Madrid gallery is unrivalled; it contains a number of poor but interesting paintings by Juan de Juanes, the best collection of the works of Ribera (Spagnoletto), and the chief masterpieces of Velazquez. It is in Madrid alone that the greatness of Velazquez can be fully realized, just as the marvellous talents of Murillo are apparent only in Seville. Among the many wonderful paintings by Velazquez in this gallery the chief are the Crucifixion, the Tapestry Weavers (Las Hilantleras), the Surrender of Breda (Las Lanzas), the Drinking Peasants (Los Borrachos), the portrait group known as Las Meniñas, and many magnificent portraits. The gallery also contains a number of Zurbaran’s works, and many by Murillo, none of which are among his finest paintings. The best picture by Murillo at Madrid is the scene of St Elizabeth of Hungary tending the Lepers, preserved in the Academia de San Fernando. Seville alone contains the real masterpieces of Murillo, a very unequal painter, who produced a large number of third-rate works, such as are to be seen in many of the chief galleries of Europe, but who at his best deserves to rank with the greatest painters of the world. It is impossible to describe the wonderful rich tone, the intense pathos, and the touching religious feeling of such pictures as the Crucified Christ embracing St Francis, or the apparition of the Infant Saviour to St Anthony of Padua, in the Seville gallery, and the larger composition of the latter scene in the cathedral. Other very noble works by Murillo exist in the monastic church of La Caridad. The Seville gallery also contains several of Zurbaran’s chief pictures, and some by other painters of the Spanish school. The other chief gallery of Spain, that at Valencia, contains a number of weak but historically interesting pictures of early Spanish artists,—feeble imitations of the style of Francia and other Italian painters. It possesses also many pictures by Ribalta and other later and unimportant masters of the Valencian school.
The Vatican Gallery, though not large, contains a very large proportion of important pictures, such as a portrait group in fresco by Melozzo da Forli, the unfinished monochromatic painting of St Jerome by Da Vinci, the finest of Raphael’s early works,—the Coronation of the Virgin, the Madonna di Foligno, and the Transfiguration. The Coronation of the Virgin by Pinturicchio is one of his best panel pictures, and a portrait of a Doge by Titian a masterpiece of portraiture. The Last Communion of St Jerome by Domenichino is his finest work. The chapel of San Lorenzo, painted by Fra Angelico (see Fiesole), the Appartamenti Borgia by Pintu ricchio, the stanze by Raphael, and the Sistine Chapel by Michelangelo are described in the articles on these painters. The Capitol contains but few works of much merit; the chief are a very beautiful series of frescos of Apollo and the Muses in separate panels, lifesize, by some painter of the school of Perugino, probably Lo Spagna; they are remarkable for grace of drawing and extreme delicacy of colour. The Rape of Europa, by Paul Veronese, is a fine replica of that in the doge’s palace at Venice. The gallery also contains some of the chief works of Guercino and Guido and a very noble portrait by Velazquez. The Borghese Gallery is perhaps the most important private collection in the world. It is rich in Florentine pictures of the 15th century, and possesses the celebrated Entombment by Raphael. A small panel of St Stephen by Francia (signed) is of unusual beauty and interest,—very highly finished and magnificent in colour; it seems to show the influence of Jan van Eyck; it is one of Francis’s earliest works, and is very far superior to those of his later style. The great glory of the gallery is the (so-called) Sacred and Profane Love by Titian (see fig. 16), one of the most beautiful pictures in the world both for design and colour, and a marvel for its rich warm rendering of flesh; it appears to be a portrait of the same lady repeated twice,—nude and draped. It belongs to a somewhat earlier period than the bacchanal trio in Madrid and London. This gallery contains also one of Vandyck’s finest portraits, that of Catherine de’ Medici, and other excellent portraits of the Venetian school. The Danae by Correggio is an interesting example, very weak in drawing, but remarkable for the fine pearly tones of the flesh. The Corsini Gallery, now the property of the municipality of Rome, contains some good panels by Fra Angelico, but is mainly strong only in the later Bolognese paintings. It also possesses a rich collection of early Italian engravings. The Doria Gallery is large, but contains only a small proportion of valuable pictures. Some paintings by Niccolo Rondinelli are of much interest; they show him to have been an able pupil and close imitator of Giovanni Bellini, to whom many paintings in various galleries are attributed which are really the work of pupils. A beautiful Madonna in the Doria Palace by Rondinelli has a cartellino inscribed with Bellini’s name. The chief treasures of this collection are the portraits of two Venetians attributed to Raphael, and that of Pope Innocent X. by Velazquez,—the latter a marvel of dashing and almost too skilful execution. There is also a fine portrait of Andrea Doria by Sebastiano del Piombo, well modelled, but rather wanting in colour. The Sciarra-Colonna Palace contains a few good pictures, among them a very fine portrait of a violin-player by Raphael, and a graceful painting of Modesty and Vanity by Luini, attributed to Da Vinci, as is often the case with Luini’s pictures. The Colonna, Barberini, and other private galleries of Rome contain but little that is noteworthy. The church of S. Maria sopra Minerva contains some splendid frescos by Lippo Lippi; some of Piutu-ricchio’s chief frescos are in the churches of S. Maria del Popolo and S. Maria in Ara Coeli; and the monastery of S. Onofrio possesses a very lovely fresco of the Madonna and a kneeling Donor, attributed to Da Vinci,—probably a pupil’s work.
The Florentine Accademia delle Belle Arti contains a most valuable collection of early Florentine and other 15th-century pictures, including the finest panel picture by Gentile da Fabriano,—the Adoration of the Magi,—a rare example of Verrocchio, partly painted by his pupil Da Vinci, some magnificent examples of Botticelli, good specimens of Fra Angelico, Ghirlandaio, Signorelli, Lippo Lippi, Fra Bartolomeo, and a group of saints by Andrea del Sarto, one of his best works. The magnificent galleries in the Uffizi and Pitti Palaces contain an unrivalled collection of the great Florentine painters of all dates. In the Uffizi are several fine paintings by Raphael,—the Madonna del Cardellino, a portrait of Julius II., and an exquisitely finished head of an unknown lady. Among the many fine examples by Titian is his portrait of a nude lady reclining (Danae),—a most wonderful work. In the same room (La Tribuna) is the circular panel of the Madonna and St Joseph, an early work by Michelangelo, showing the influence of Signorelli. Many of Botticelli’s finest works are in this gallery, and the Uffizi also possesses an almost unrivalled collection of drawings by Italian painters of all dates. The Pitti Palace contains some of the chief works of Raphael,—the early Madonna del Gran Duca, and portraits of Angelo Doni and his wife, the portraits of Cardinal Bibicna and Leo X. (in his later manner), the Madonna della Seggiola, and the miniature Vision of Ezekiel. The portrait of a nun, attributed to Da Vinci, but probably the work of a pupil, is a work of extraordinary finish and refinement. The Magdalen and the lady’s portrait (La Bella) by Titian are among his best works. Both these collections contain some good Flemish and Dutch pictures. In the church of Santa Croce are the chief works of Giotto, in S. Maria Novella the best pictures of Orcagna and Ghirlandaio, and in the monastery of S. Marco the principal frescos of Fra Angelico. Some of the chief frescos of Spinello Aretino, much repainted, exist in the sacristy of S. Miniato, and the most important frescos of Andrea del Sarto are in the church of S. Annunziata.
The small galleries at Perugia and Siena are of great interest for their collections of rare works by painters of the local schools. The s m all collection at Pisa also possesses some curious early panels by local painters; in the church of S. Caterina is a magnificent altarpiece by Fran. Traini, Orcagna’s chief pupil. At Prato are the finest frescos of Lippo Lippi. The gallery at Bologna contains some of Francia's chief works, the St Cecilia of Raphael, and a number of examples of the Caracci and others of the later Bolognese school.
Parma is specially rich in the works of Correggio and Parmigiano; unhappily the great frescos by the former in the cathedral have almost wholly perished. The small collection at Ferrara possesses interesting examples of paintings of the local school. Brescia and Bergamo are very rich in fine works of Moretto and Moroni, and also possess a number of fine Venetian paintings of various dates. Padua has but a small and unimportant gallery, but the town is rich in frescos by Giotto, Altichiero, and Jacopo Avanzi, and most noble frescos by Andrea Mantegna. Mantua also contains some grand frescos by Mantegna in the Castello di Corti, and a large quantity of showy and cleverly executed wall and ceiling paintings by Giulio Romano in the Palazzo del Tè. The Verona gallery contains some few good examples of the local school. The church of S. Zenone possesses a magnificent altarpiece by Mantegna; and in S. Anastasia is the wreck of a fine fresco of St George and the Dragon by Pisanello. The Vicenza collection contains little of value except some good examples of Bart. Montagna. The Turin gallery possesses a few good pictures, especially some fine panels by Botticelli and splendid portraits by Vandyck. Many of Van dyck’s finest works exist in the various palaces of Genoa. The large gallery at Naples contains an unusual proportion of bad pictures; there are, however, some fine works of Titian and some interesting examples of the early Flemish school which have been in Naples ever since the 15th century. The only painting of much importance in the gallery at Palermo is a very beautiful triptych of the school of Van Eyck.
Venice is extraordinarily rich in the works of its own school, with the exception of those of Crivelli, who is completely absent. The works in Venice of the Bellini family, of Carpaccio and others of Gian. Bellini’s pupils, of Titian, Tintoretto, and Paul Veronese, are among the chief glories of the world. The Grimani breviary, in the doge’s library, contains a very beautiful series of miniature pictures of the school of Mending.
The Brera Gallery at Milan contains a large number of masterpieces, especially of the Lombard and Venetian schools, among them the chief work of Gentile Bellini, St Mark at Alexandria, some unrivalled portraits by Lorenzo Lotto, and very important examples of Moretto’s religious paintings. One of its greatest treasures is the altarpiece painted for the duke of Montefeltro by Piero della Francesca, and wrongly attributed to his pupil Fra Carnovale. The celebrated Sposalizio is the most important work of Raphael, executed wholly under the influence of Perugino. The gallery is especially rich in works of the pupils and imitators of Leonardo and other Milanese painters. The Biblioteca Ambrogiana contains some priceless drawings by Leonardo da Vinci and a large number of his autograph MSS., selections from which have been published by Dr Richter, London, 1883. Another important MS. of Da Vinci from the same library, the Codice Atlantico, is now (1886) in course of publication in Rome in its entirety.
This very scanty sketch of the contents of the chief galleries of Europe will give some notion of the places where the works of special schools and masters can best be studied. In some cases there is but little choice: the greatness of Giotto can only be fully realized in Florence and Padua, of Carpaccio and Tintoretto in Venice, of Signorelli at Orvieto and Monte Oliveto, of Fra Angelico in Florence, of Correggio in Parma, of Velazquez in Madrid, and of Murillo in Seville.
List of Works to be consulted. - P ainting generally.— Agincourt, Histoire de l’Art, Paris, 1811-23; Bell, Schools of Painting, London, 1842; Blanc, Histoire des Peintres de toutes les Écoles, Paris, 1848-76; Buchanan, Memoirs of Painting, London, 1824; Chabert, Galerie des Peintres, Paris, 1822; Daryl, Dictionary of Painters, London, 1878; Duchesne, Museum of Painting, Paris, 1829-34; Eastlake, Handbook of Painting, 4th ed., London, 1874; Görling, Geschichte der Malerei, Leipsic, 1867; Havard, Histoire de la Peinture, Paris, 1882; Mrs Heaton, Concise History of Painting, London, 1872; Heinrich, Leben und Werke der berühmtesten Maler, Berlin, 1854; Lecarpentier, Galerie des Peintres Célèbres, Paris, 1810-21; Ménard, Histoire des Beaux-Arts, Paris, 1873; Montabert, Traité de la Peinture, Paris, 1829-51; Parrocel, Annales de la Peinture, Paris, 1862; Destreinan, Histoire de l’Art, Paris, 1882; Diderot, Essais sur la Peinture, Leipsic, 1862; Eméric-David, La Peinture Moderne, 1862; Michiels, La Peinture du IVme au XVIme Siècle, Brussels, 1853; Müntz, Histoire de la Peinture, Paris, 1881; Stendhal, Histoire de la Peinture, Paris, 1860; Miss K. Thompson, Handbook to Picture Galleries of Europe, 3d ed., London, 1880; Wornum, History of Painting, London, 1847, and Epochs of Painting, 1864; Eckl and Atz, Die Madonna als Gegenstand christlicher Kunstmalerei, Brixen, 1883; Hotho, Gesch. der christlichen Malerei, Stuttgart, 1873; Argens, Examen des Ecoles de Peinture, Berlin, 1768; Hobbes, Picture-Collector’s Manual, London, 1849; Bryan, Dictionary of Painters, London, 1865; Sivet, Diction. Hist, des Peintres, Paris, 1855; Bartsch, Peintre graveur, Vienna, 1802-21; Sorg, Gesch. der christlichen Malerei, Berlin, 1853; Waagen, Treasures of Art in Britain, London, 1854-57; Rebre, Kunstgeschichte des Mittelalters, Leipsic, 1885. Early Mediaeval Schools Mullooly, Paintings in S. Clemente, Rome, 1866; Perret, Catacombes de Rome, Paris, 1852-57; De Rossi, Roma Sotterranea, Rome, 1864-80; Didron, Manuel d'Iconographie Chrétienne, Paris, 1845 (in this is printed the 11th-century MS. 'E pμηveιa τηs ξ , ωypaφικτηs, on the hieratic rules of Byzantine art); Bayet, La Peinture Chrétienne en Orient, Paris, 1879; Carter, Specimens of Ancient Sculpture and Painting, London, 1812; Pownall, “Ancient Painting in England, " in Archxologia, ix. p. 141, and other papers in the same publication; the Vetusta Monumenta, published by the Society of Antiquaries has valuable reproductions of the 14th-century wall-paintings in St Stephen’s Chapel, Westminster, which are now destroyed, except a few fragments in the British Museum; many articles on mediaeval painting occur in the volumes of the Archaeological Journal, and in the Proceedings of many other societies in England and abroad. Italian Schools generally. —Crowe and Cavalcaselle History of Painting in Italy, London, 1864-66, and History of Painting in North Italy, 1871; Woermann and Woltmann, History of Painting, ed. by S. Colvin London, 1880; Kugler, Handbook of Painting, London, 1874; Lanzi Storià pittorica, Florence, 1822; Rosini, Storia della Pittura Italiana, Pisa, 1839-47; Rumohr, Italienische Forschungen, Berlin, 1826-31; Forster, Denkmale ital. Malerei, Leipsic, 1870-73; Dohme, Kunst und Künstler Ital., Berlin, 1878; Burckhardt, The Cicerone, best ed. London, 1879; Coindet, Histoire de la Peinture en Italie, Paris, 1861; Lübke, Gesch. der ital. Malerei, Stuttgart, 1878; Ottley, Italian School, London, 1823; W. B. Scott, Pictures by Italian Masters, London, 1876; Mrs Jameson, Early Italian Painters, London, 1859; Symonds, Renaissance in Italy (Fine Arts), London, 1877; Tytler, Old Masters and their Pictures, London, 1873; Bernasconi, Storia d. Pittura Italiana, Pisa, 1864; Clément La Peinture Italienne, Parts, 1857 (on early painters); Pascoli, Vite dei Pittori, Rome, 1736; Poynter, Painting, Early Christian, &c., small handbook, London, 1882; L. Scott, Renaissance in Italy, small handbook, London, 1883; Richter, Italian Art in the National Gallery, London, 1883; Frizzoni, L’Arte Italiana nella Gal. Nat. di Londra, Milan, 1880, published in the Archivio Storico di Milano ; Reiset, in the Gaz. des B.-Arts for 1877, gives a valuable series of articles entitled “Une Visite aux Musées de Londres "; Morelli, Italian Masters in German Galleries, trans., London, 1883, and his valuable series of articles on the Borghese Gallery in Lützow's Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst. This very able art critic, who also writes under the name of “Lermolieff,” has developed a somewhat new system of criticism, based on minute observation of the way in which each painter treated details, such as the hand and ear,—in most cases (according to Morelli) a safer guide than the general impression derived from the whole effect or spirit of a picture, and less misleading than a judgment formed from technical peculiarities; the Comm. Morelli, aided by a good knowledge of the documentary history of art, has thus been enabled to give back to their right authors many paintings which for long have been wrongly named. Italian Special Schools. -Bordiga, Opere del Gaud. Ferrari, Milan, 1835; Pagani, Le Pitture di Modena, Modena, 1770; Vedriani, Pittori, &c., Modanesi, Modena, 1662; Zaist, Pittori Cremonesi, Cremona, 1774; Graselli, Biog. dei Pittori Cremonesi, Cremona, 1827; Arco, Delie Arti di Mantova, Mantua, 1857- 58; Coddè, Dizionario dei Pittori Mantovani, Mantua, 1837; Pozzo, Vite dei Pittori Veronesi, Verona, 1718; Ferri, Pittori Milanesi, Rome, 1868; Rio, L. da Vinci et son École, Paris, 1855; Moschini, La Pittura in Padova, Padua, 1826; Bodoni, Pitture Parmensi, Parma, 1809; Offò, Vita del Parmigianino, Parma, 1784; Leoni, Pitture di Correggio, Modena, 1841; Pungileoni, Memorie storiche di Correggio, Parma, 1817-21; Malvasia, Felsina Pittrice, Bologna, 1678; Barotti, Pitture di Ferrara, Ferrara, 1770; Laderchi, La Pittura Ferrarese, Ferrara, 1856; Baruffaldi, Vite dei Pittori Ferraresi, Ferrara; Mesnard, La Peinture à Sienne, Paris, 1878; Della Valle, Lettere Sanesi, Venice, 17S2-86; Lasinio, Pitture . . . di Siena, Florence, 1825; Milanesi, Documenti dell' Arte Senese, 1858; Boullier, L’Art Vénitien, Paris, 1870; W. B. Scott, Pictures by Venetian Painters, London, 1875; Ruskin, St Mark’s Rest, London, 1879, Stones of Venice, 1856, and Guide to principal Pictures at Venice, 1878; Zanetti, Storia d. Pittura Veneziana, Venice, 1771; Longhi, Vite dei Pittori Veneziani, Venice, 1762; Ridolfi, Maraviglie dell’ Arte, Venice, 1648; Verci, Pittori, Ac., di Bassano, Venice, 1775; Tassi, Vite dei Pittori, Ac., Bergamaschi, Bergamo, 1793; Chizzola, Pitture di Brescia, Brescia, 1809; Calvi, Vita di Francia, Bologna, 1812, and Vita di Fran. Barbiéri (Guercino), 1808; Ratti, Pittura, Ac., in Genova, Genoa, 1780; Pascoli, Vite dei Pittori, Ac., Perugini, Rome, 1732; Mariotti, Lettere Pittoriche Perugine, Perugia, 1788; Fiorillo, Gesch. der Malerei in Toscana, Berlin, 1850; Marchese, Pittori Domenicani, Florence, 1845; Ricci, Mem. di Melozzo da Forli, Forli, 1834; Reggiani, Mem. stor. d. Arti della Marca di Ancona, Macerata, 1834; Domenici, Vite dei Pittori Napoletani, Naples, 1840-46,—not trustworthy in its account of supposed early Neapolitan painters; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Life of Titian, London, 1878, and Life of Raphael, 1880-85; Vischer, L. Signorelli und die ital. Renaissance, Leipsic, 1879. German, Flemish, and Dutch Schools. —Bode, Frans Hals und seine Schule, Leipsic, 1871, Die Künstler von Haarlem, 1872, and Gesch. der holländischen Malerei, 1883; Burger, Études sur les Peintres Hollandais, Paris, 1859; Burnet, Rembrandt and his Works, London, 1859; Scheltema, Rembrand, Redevoering, Ac., Amsterdam, 1845; Fairholt, Homes, Ac., of the Dutch Painters, London, 1871; R. Gower, Figure Painters of Holland, London, 1880; Havard, L’ Art Hollandais, Paris, 1879, and Histoire de la Peinture Hollandaise, Paris, 1882; Kramm, Levens en Werken der Hollandische Kunstschilders, Amsterdam, 1857-64; Rathgeber, Annalen der niederländischen Malerei, Gotha, 1842- 44; Renouvier, Les Peintres de l’Ancienne École Hollandaise, Paris, 1857; Van Mander, Le Livre des Peintres, Paris, 1884; Riegel, Beiträge zur niederländischen Kunstgeschichte, Berlin, 1882; Van Eynden, Geschiedcnis der vaterlandsche Schilderkunst, Amsterdam, 1842; Vloten, Nederlands Schilderkunst, Amsterdam, 1874; Van Gool, Nieuwe Schouburg der Kunstschilders, Amsterdam, 1858; Hotho, Gesch. der deutschen und niederländ. Malerei, Berlin, 1840-43; Descamps, La Vie des Peintres Flamands, Paris, 1753-64; Dehaisnes, L’Art Chrét. en Flandre, Douai, 1860; Fétis, Les Artistes Belges, Brussels, 1857; Fromentin, Les Maîtres d’autrefois, Paris, 1876; Saint-Germain, Guide de Tableaux, École Allemande, Ac., Paris, 1841; Héris, Histoire de l’École Flamande, Brussels, 1856; Houssaye, Histoire de la Peinture Flamande, &c, Paris, 1866; Michiels, Les Peintres Brugeois, Brussels, 1846, Histoire de la Peinture Flamande, Ac., 1847, and L’École d’Anvers, Parte, 1877; Potvin, L’Art Flamand, Paris, 1868; Rooses, Gesch. der Malerschule Antwerpens, Munich, 1880; Stanley, Principal Painters of Dutch and Flemish Schools, London, 1855;' Head, Handbook of Painting, German, Flemish, and Dutch, London, 1846; Waagen, Die deutschen und niederländischen Malerschulen, Stuttgart, 1862; Kugler, Handbook of Painting, 2d ed., London, 1874; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Early Flemish Painters, London, 1872; J. Smith, Catalogue of Works of Dutch, Flemish, and French Painters, London, 1829-42; Sandrart, L’Accademia Tedesca, Nuremberg, 1675-79; Lindau, Lucas Cranach, Leipsic, 1883; Heller, Cranach’s Leben und Werke, Nuremberg, 1804; Willigen, Les Artistes de Haarlem, Haarlem, 1870; Woltmann, Hans Holbein, Berlin, 1865; Wornum, Life of Holbein, London, 1866; Thausing, Albrecht Dürer, Berlin, 1872-76; Mrs Heaton, Life of A. Durer, London, 1881; Heller, Leben und Werke A. Dürers, Leipsic, 1831; Innstadten, Darstellung der Gesch. der Malerei, Vienna, 1853; Knirim, Die Hartzmalerei, Ac., Leipsic, 1839; Passavant, Beiträge zur Kenntniss, &c., Berlin, 1846; Houbraken, Nederlandsche Kunstschilders, Amsterdam, 1718-21; Immerzeei, De Levens en Werken der Hollandsche, &c., Amsterdam, 1842-43; Weale, Notes sur Jean Van Eyck, London, 1861; Carton, Les trois Van Eyck, Bruges, 1848; Heinecken, Neue Nachrichten von Künstlern, Dresden, 1768-71; Gwinner, Kunst und Künstler in Frankjurt, Frankfort, 1862; Merlo, Nachrichten von dem Leben, &c., kölnischer Künstler, Cologne, 1850; Busscher, Corporation des Peintres à Gand, Brussels, 1853; Taurel, L’Art en Hollande, Ac., Amsterdam, 1872; Bürget, Musées de la Hollande, Brussels, 1858-60; Aus’m Weerth, Kunstdenkmäler des christ. Mittelalters, Leipsic, 1857-60; Saint-Germain, Guide de Tableaux (German, Flemish, and Dutch), Paris, 1841; Dohme, Bode, and others, Gesch. der deutschen Kunst, Berlin, 1885; W. B. Scott, The Little Masters, London, 1879. Modern German Schools. —Bouniol, L’Art chrétien et l’École Allemande, Paris, 1856; Ormos, Peter von Cornelius, &c., Berlin, 1866; Ranzoni, Malerei in Wien, Vienna, 1873; Riegel, Gesch. der deutschen Kunst, Hanover, 1876; Wustmann, Gesch. der Malerei in Leipzig, Leipsic, 1879; Schasler, Die Wandgemälde von Kaulbachs, Berlin, 1854; Pecht, Deutsche Künstler, Nördlingen, 1877-81; Leixner, Die moderne Kunst, Berlin, 1878; Rosenberg, Gesch. der mod. Kunst, Leipsic, 1882. Spanish School.— Head, Handbook of Painting (Spanish), London, 1847; Stirling, Annals of the Artists of Spain, London, 1848, and Velasquez and his Works, 1855; O'Neil, Dictionary of Spanish Painters, London, 1833; Montecuccoli, Storia della Pittura in Ispagna, Modena, 1841; Cumberland, Eminent Painters in Spain, London, 17S2; Laforge, Des Arts en Espagne, Lyons, 1859; W. B. Scott, Murillo and the Spanish School, London, 1872; Curtis, Murillo and Velasquez, London, 1883; Davies, Life of Murillo, London, 1819; Viardot 1 Les Principaux Peintres de l'Espagne, Paris, 1839; Eusebi, Las diferentes Escudos de Pintura, Madrid, 1823; Malpica, El Arte de la Pintura, Madrid, 1874; Bermudez, Dicionario de las Bellas Artes en España, Madrid, 1800; Robinson, Early Portuguese Painting, Bungay, 1866; Davillier, Mariano Fortuny, sa Vie, &c., Paris, 1875. French School. —Mrs M. Pattison, Renaissance of Art in France, 1879; La Chavignerie, Dictionnaire de l'École Française, Paris, 1883; Béraud, Annales de l'École Française, Paris, 1827; Berger, L'École Française, Paris, 1879; Dufour, Peintres Parisiens aux XIV et XV Siècles, Paris, 1879; Parrocel, Annales de la Peinture, Paris, 1862; De Saint-Germain, Trois Siècles de la Peinture en France, Paris, 1808; Laborde, Renaissance des Arts à la Cour de France, Paris, 1850-55; Concourt, L'Art dans le XVIIIme Siècle, Paris, 1880-84. Modern French Schooi— Chesneau, La Peinture Française au XIXme Siècle, Paris, 1862; Claretie, L'Art Français Contemporain, Paris, 1876; Pesquidoux, L'Art au XIXme Siècle, Paris, 1881; Jourdan, Les Peintres Français, Paris, 1859; Laforge, La Peinture en France, Paris, 1856; Inurent-Piehat, L’Art en France, 1859; Leclercq, L'École Française, Paris, 1881; Merson, La Peinture en France, 1861; Meyer, Gesch. der mod. französischen Malerei, Leipsic, 1867; Rosenberg, Gesch. der mod. Kunst, Leipsic, 1884; Wurzbach, Die französischen Maler, Stuttgart, 1879. British School. —Graves, Dictionary of British Artists from 1760 to 1880, London, 1881; Redgrave, Painters of the English School, London, 1866, and Dictionary of Artists (English), 1878; W. B. Scott, Our British Landscape Painters, London, 1872; Shepherd, British School of Painting, London, 1880; Walpole, Anecdotes of Painting in England, London, 1861; Woddersρoon, J. Crome and his Works, Norwich, 1858; Chesneau, La Peinture Anglaise, Paris, 1882; Clayton, English Female Artists, London, 1876; Cunningham, Lives of British Painters, ed. Mrs Heaton, 1879; Dallaway, Painting in England, London, 1849; Hannay and others, Works of Hogarth, London, 1860; Hoare, Academic Annals of Painting, London, 1805-9; Dumas, Modern Artists, Paris, 1882; Ruskin, Modern Painters, London, 1851-60; Our Living Painters (anon.), London, 1859; Monkhouse, Masterpieces of English Art, London, 1868; Britton, Fine Arts of the English School, London, 1812; Brock-Arnold, Gainsborough and Reynolds, London, 1881; Leslie and Taylor, Life and Times of Reynolds, London, 1865; Conway, Reynolds and Gainsborough, London, 1886. Early Treatises on Painting.— Theophilus, Diversarum Artium Schedula, trans., London, 1847; Cennino Cennini, Trattato della Pittura, trans., together with other early documents on painting by Mrs Merrifield, Treatises on Painting, London, 1848; Eastlake, Materials for History of Oil Painting, 1847-69; the Commentary of Lorenzo Ghiberti, containing a short history of Florentine art, has been published (in French) by Perkins, Ghiberti et son École, Paris, 1836; Filarete, Trattato dell’ Architettura, &c., written at Florence, 1464, Pretiosa Margarita, edited by Aldus, Venice, 1546; Da Vinci, Trattato della Pittura, Bologna, 1786, and selections from forty-two autograph MSS. at Milan, edited by Richter, London, 1883; Lomazzo, Trattato d. Pittura, Milan, 1584; Vasari, Vite dei Pittori, first complete edition, Florence, 1568, best edition by Milanesi, Florence, 187S-82; Morelli, Notizia d'Opere di Disegno . . . scritta da un Anonimo (a work of the 16th century); Bassano, 1800, best edition by Frizzoni, Bologna, 1884; Bellori, Vite dei Pittori, Rome, 1672; Ridolfi, Maraviglie dell’ Arte, Venice, 1648; Baldinucci, Professori del Disegno, Florence, 1681-88; Du Fresnoy, Art of Painting, London, 1695; Van Lairesse, Art of Painting, trans., London, 1738; Piles, Divers Ouvrages sur la Peinture, Paris, 1755. For the bibliography of painting, see Weigel, Kunstcatalog, Leipsic, 1833 and following years; and Reumont, Notizie bibliografiche dei Lavori publ. in Germania trait, d. Belle Arti, Florence, 1847-63.
