His chief work is a Chroηicoη ab urbe condita ad annum 1054, which in its earlier portion consists of a compilation from previous chronicles, but between 1044 and 1054 furnishes important and original material for the history of Henry III. The first edition, from a MS. no longer extant, was printed by Sichard at Basel in 1529, and reissued in 1530; another edition appeared at St Blaise in 1590 under the supervision of Ussermann; and a third, from a Reichenau MS., forms part of vol. v. of Pertz’s Monumenta Germanice historica. A German translation of the last is contributed by Robbe to Die Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit. The separate lives of Conrad II. and Henry III., often ascribed to Hermann, appear to have perished. His treatises De mensura astrolabii and De utilitatibτιs astrolabii (to be found, on the authority of Salzburg MSS., in Pez, Thesaurus anecdotorum novissimus, iii.) being the first contributions of moment furnished by a European to this subject, Hermann was for a time considered the inventor of the astrolabe. A didactic poem from his pen, De octo vitiis principalibus, is printed in Haupt’s Zeitschrift für deutsches Alterthum (vol. xiii. ); and he is sometimes credited with the composition of the Latin hymns Veni Sancte Spiritus, Salve Regina, and Alma Redemptoris.

HERMANN, Friedrich Benedict Wilhelm von (1795-1868), one of the most distinguished of modern writers on political economy, was born on 5th December 1795, at Dinkelsbühl in Bavaria. After finishing his primary education he was for some time employed in a draughtsman’s office. He then resumed his studies, partly at the gymnasium in his native town, partly at the universities of Erlangen and Würzburg. His attention seems principally to have been given to mathematics and political economy. In 1817 he took up a private school at Nuremberg, where he remained for four years. After filling an appointment as teacher of mathematics at the gymnasium of Erlangen, he became in 1823 privat-docent at the university in that town. His inaugural dissertation was on the notions of political economy among the Romans (Disserta- tio exhibens sententias Romanorum ad oeconomiam politicam pertinentes, Erlangen, 1823). He probably did not remain long at Erlangen, for a year or two after this date we find him acting as professor of mathematics at the gymnasium and polytechnic school in N uremberg, where he continued till 1827. During his stay there he published an elementary treatise on arithmetic and algebra (Lehrbuch der Arith. u. Algeb., 1826), and made a journey to France to inspect the organization and conduct of technical schools in that country. The results of his investigation were published in 1826 and 1828 (Ueber technische Unterrichts-Anstalten'). Soon after his return from France he was made professor extraordinarius of political science at the university of Munich, and in 1833 he was advanced to the rank of ordinary professor in the same subject. In 1832 appeared the first edition of his great work on political economy, Staatswirthschaftliche Untersuchungen (Economical Researches). In 1835 he was made member of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences.

From this time onwards Hermann’s life was one of great and varied practical activity. From the year 1836 he acted as inspector of technical instruction in Bavaria, and made frequent journeys to Berlin and Paris in order to study the methods there pursued. In the state service of Bavaria, to which he devoted himself, he rose gradually but rapidly. In 1837 he was placed on the council for superintendence of church and school work; in 1839 he was entrusted with the direction of the bureau of statistics; in 1845 he was one of the councillors for the interior; in 1848 he sat as member for Munich in the national assembly at Frankfort. In this assembly Hermann, with Heckscher and Sommaruga, was mainly instrumental in organizing the so-called “Great German” party, and was selected as one of the representatives of their views at Vienna. Warmly supporting the customs union (Zollverein), he acted in 1851 as one of its commissioners at the great industrial exhibition at London, and published an elaborate report on the woollen goods. Three years later he was president of the committee of judges at the similar exhibition at Munich, and the report of its proceedings was drawn up by him. In 1855 he became councillor of state (Staatsrath im ordentlichen Dienst), the highest honour in the service to which he could attain.

It is hardly surprising that in the midst of such varied and weighty practical occupations Hermann did not find time for carrying on systematically his work in the pure science of economics. Yet the long series of reviews, mainly of works on economical subjects, published in the Münchener Gelehrte Anzeigen from 1835 to 1847, attest his unabated industry and constant interest in the subject on its theoretical side, while his more elaborate papers in Rau’s Archiv der politischen Oekonomie and in the Augsburger Allgemeine Zeitung show the wide extent of his practical knowledge. As head of the bureau of statistics he published a series of annual reports (Beiträge zur Statistik des Königreichs Bayern, Heft 1-17, 1850-1867) which are of very high value, especially as regards the growth of population. His only complete work in economic science, the Researches, had gone out of print a very few years after the book was published, but not until near the close of his life did Hermann find an opportunity of undertaking a revision of it. Upon this task he was engaged at the time of his death, 23d November 1868, and he had recast, enlarged, and amended nearly two-thirds of the volume. The second edition, prepared from his MS., and including those parts of the first edition which had not been revised or superseded, was published in 1870 by his friends Dr Helferich and Dr Mayr. There have since been several reprints.

Although the Siααtsudrthschαflliche Untersuchungen is not a systematic treatise on political economy, it must nevertheless be regarded as in many respects the most important contribution to the science since the Wealth of Nations. It cannot, indeed, be said to contain principles which are in themselves novel or original; Hermann’s merits are not so much those of a discoverer as of a most acute and subtle critic. Like Ricardo he excels in abstract analysis, in resolution of complex phenomena into their simpler elements, but he has a more firm hold than Ricardo ever seems to have possessed of the true nature of these elementary facts, and a remarkable power of precisely stating and comprehensively combining them. The peculiar value of the Researches consists in the strict analysis to which the primary notions of economics are subjected, in the general conception of the method and plan of the science which emerges from this analysis, and in the masterly way in which fundamental principles are carried out in the detailed problems of the science. Only in the fashion indicated by Hermann can we hope to render clear the position of a pure theory of economic facts as an indispensable and independent branch of social science. The historic method of inquiry, fatal to much that has been regarded as distinctive of the abstract or English school of political economy, harmonizes perfectly with the theory of the elementary facts from which economical development takes its start, as stated by Hermann and those Continental wrjters who have followed him.

The Researches, in the 2d edition, consists of ten separate essays, of which the first, on the fundamental notions of economics ( “Grundlegung,” pp. 1-77), the fifth (pp. 143-389, on “Production”), the sixth(pp. 390-459, on “Price”), the eighth (pp. 448-581, on “Profit”), and the ninth (pp. 582-598, on ‘ ‘ Revenue”) are of the greatest importance. In the “Grundlegung,” a clear and lucid description is given of the simple phenomena, in family, community, and state, upon which economical inquiries are founded. Human wants and the satisfaction to be obtained for them by labour exercised on natural agents are recognized as the primitive facts. But in the satisfaction of wants there are two aspects, the technical and the economical. Technically we consider solely the process by which commodities of a quality suited to satisfy want are obtained. Economically we have always to estimate the ratio between the effort expended and the result obtained. An “economy” is a distribution of forces so that the result, satisfaction, may be obtained with least expenditure of effort, with least loss of utility. The influence of this economical principle, the institutions to which it gives rise, the conditions under which it is possible, and the circumstances which affect, modify, or counteract it, are traced with reference to the individual, the family, the community, and the state or nation. The increasing complexity of the phenomena does not alter the nature of the principle which lies at the basis of them, and it is the business of economic theory to analyse these phenomena under guidance of the general principle. Economics is therefore defined by Hermann as the “quantitative theory of goods and, though he is sparing in the use of symbols, his method of treatment is throughout mathematical. Deserving of attention is the manner in which he points out the influence of collective feeling and collective wants as giving rise to special institutions (government, defence) in the community. To this first fundamental essay the three succeeding papers (“Wants,” “Goods,” “Economy,” pp. 78-142) are appendices. The treatment of these, the classifications given, the detailed discussion of particular points, e.g., the productivity of labour, and the distinction drawn between economical estimates from the individual or the collective point of view, make up a solid contribution to the science.

The fifth essay is an elaborate treatise on the theory of production, treating the agents of production—free goods, labour, and capital—separately, then the interests of the several parties engaged, and the changes due to variations in the cost of producing. Under “Labour” is given the most complete and systematic discussion of separation of employments. Capital is defined so as to include land, but careful reference is made to the distinctive peculiarities of this form of wealth. Especially remarkable is Hermann’s treatment of what he calls Nutz-capital {i.e., servicecapital), with regard to which he accepts almost entirely the view of J. B. Say. Under fixed capital a very elaborate treatment of the nature and economic influence of machines is given, while the handling of changes in the cost of production, both here and in the essay on “Profit, is acute and luminous.

The sixth essay analyses the forces which underlie supply and demand. These are stated to be:—(a) on the side of the purchaser—(1) his desire for the commodity in question, or its utility to him, (2) his means, (3) the competition of sellers; (b) on the side of the seller—(1) cost of production, (2) competition of the buyers, (3) the value of the medium of exchange. The same considerations are shown to hold good in the case of the price of labour, though unfortunately the seventh essay, on “Wages,” is incomplete. The eighth essay, on “Profit, ’’ discusses very elaborately the rate of return on the various species of capital and the circumstances that determine it, distinguishes interest from profit in general, and marks as a special form the profit of the entrepreneur (Unternchmergcwinn). This last he regards as distinct from wages of superintendence, and from insurance for risk. The ninth and tenth essays, on“Revenue’’and “Consumption,’’are perhaps specially interesting from the clear mode in which the theory, afterwards called that of the wages fund, is rejected, and from the precision with which the diverse points of view for estimating net revenue are discriminated.

This brief analysis is sufficient to show the high value of Hermann’s work as a contribution to pure economics. On practical questions, those of economic legislation, his opinions are only to be gathered with difficulty from the papers in the Gelehrte Anzeigen, and generally were expressed with such reference to special circumstances as to render doubtful their full import. It seems probable, however, that his views on protection were far from clear, and that he was somewhat under the sway of the dangerous principle that the best financial policy is encouragement of national industry. It is difficult, however, to speak definitely on this subject.

See Kautz, Gesc⅛. Entwicklung d. National-Oekonomik, pp. 633-38; Roscher, Qesch. d. Nat. Oekon. in Deutschland, pp. 860-79.

HERMANN, Johann Gottfried Jakob (1772-1848), classical editor and philologist, was born at Leipsic on November 28, 1772. Entering the university of his native city at the precocious age of fourteen, Hermann at first studied law, but his inclination to classical learning was too strong to be resisted, and accordingly, after a session spent at Jena in 1793-94, he became a lecturer on classical literature in Leipsic. In 1798 he was appointed professor extraordinarius of philosophy at the university there, and after refusing an invitation to proceed to Kiel as rector of a school, he was in 1803 chosen professor of eloquence. In 1809 he received the chair of poetry in addition. He died, senior of the university, on December 31, 1848.

Hermann devoted his early attention to the classical poetical metres, and published on that subject De metris Groecorum et Romanorum poetarum, in 1796; Handbuch der Metrik, in 1798; Elementa doctrinae metricae, in 1816, of which an Epitome appeared in 1818; and De Metris Pindari in 1817, attached to Heyne’s edition of that author. Of his influential and valuable writings on Greek grammar the chief are De emendenda ratione Groecae grammaticae, 1801; Notes and Excursus to Vigcr ’ s “ De praecipuis Groecoe dictionis idiotismis” 1802; and De particula &v libri IV. , 1831. His Lexicon of Photius appeared in 1808. His editions of the classics comprise several of the plays of Euripides (see vol. viii. p. 680); the Clouds oi Aristophanes, 1799; Trinιιmrnus of Plautus, 1800; Poetics of Aristotle, 1802; Hymns of Orpheus, 1805; and the Homeric Hymns, 1816. In 1825 Hermann finished the edition of Sophocles begun by Erfurdt. His editions of Bion and Moschus were published posthumously in 1849, and of all the plays of Aeschylus in 1852. The Opuscula, a collection of Hermann’s smaller writings in Latin, appeared in seven volumes between 1827 and 1877.

HERMANN, Karl Friedrich (1804-1856), one of the leιding representatives of classical investigation in Germany, was born August 4, 1804, at Frankfort-on-the-Main. His early education was received partly at Frankfort and partly at Weilburg, and his university studies were carried on at Heidelberg and Leipsic. On his return from a tour in Italy he habilitated in 1826 as privat-docent in Heidelberg; in 1832 he was called to Marburg as professor ordinarius of classical literature; and in 1842 he was transferred to Göttingen to fill the chair left vacant by the death of Ottfriel Müller. Both at Marburg and Göttingen he likewise held the office of director of the philological seminary. He died at Göttingen on the 8th of January 1856. Hermann’s scholarship took in a wide and ever-widening horizon; but his vision was clear and steady, and he knew well how to portray for other eyes the scenes that shaped themselves with new life before his own. Among his more important publications are the Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitäten, of which the first portion (Heidelberg, 1841) de ils with political, the second (1846) with religious, and the third (1852) with domestic antiquities; the Geschichte und System der Platonischen Philosophie (Heidelberg, 1839); an edition of the Platonic Dialogues (6 vols., Leipsic, 1851-52); and Culturgeschichte der Griechen und Romer (Göttingen, 1857-58, 2 vols.), published after his death by G. Schmidt. A collection of Abhandlungen und Beitrage zur class. Literatur und Alterthumskunde appeared in 1849, but the great mass of his essays and brochures, which deal with a vast variety of archaeological, artistic, critical, and philosophical subjects, are still unarranged. See Lechner, Zur Erinnerung an K. P. Hermann (Berlin, 1864).

The German name of the town is traceable to Hermann, a citizen of Nuremberg, who about the middle of the 12th century established a colony on the spot. In the 13th century it bore the name of Villa Hermanni. Under the last monarchs of the native Magyar dynasty Hermannstadt enjoyed exceptional privileges, and soon became a thriving centre of trade, its commerce with the East rising to considerable importance. In the course of the 15th and 16th centuries it was several times besieged by the Turks. In 1610 it suffered at the hands of the Transylvanian prince Gabriel Bathori. At the beginning of 1849 it was the scene of several engagements between the Austrians and Hungarians; and later in the year it was several times taken and retaken, by the Russians and Hungarians, the latter being eventually forced to yield to overwhelming numbers, August 6.