NEPAL, Nepaul, or Nipäl, is a small independent state, situated on the north-eastern frontier of Hindustan. It lies between 80° 15' and 88° 10' E. long, and 26° 20' and 30° 10' N. lat. Its extreme length is about 525 miles, and in breadth it varies from 90 to 140 miles. It is bounded on the N. by Tibet; on the E. by Sikhim and the British district of Darjeeling; on the 8. by the British districts of Purniah, Bhagalpur, Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur, Champärun, Gorakhpur, and Oudh; and on the W. by Kumäon, from which it is separated by the Kâli river. Its population is estimated by the natives at about 5,000,000, the common phrase used by the rulers in speaking of popular opinion being, “but what will the Bäwan [i.e., fifty-two] Lâkh say to this.” Probably, however, this is an exaggerated statement.
Nepal consists of two very distinct kinds of land :—(1) the terai, or strip of level cultivated and forest land lying along the southern border; and (2) the great mountainous tract stretching northwards to Tibet. Along the northern frontier stand many of the highest peaks of the Himalayan range, such as Diwalgiri (26,861 feet), Mutsiputra and Yäsa (24,000), Gosâïn Than (26,000), numerous peaks varying from 20,000 to 24,000 feet, Mount Everest (29,000), and Kinchinjunga (28,156). In clear weather this magnificent snowy range may be seen in an almost continuous line from the top of some of the lower ranges near Käthmändü. South of these are numerous parallel lower ranges, varying from 16,000 to 6000 feet in height, which are broken up at intervals by cross ranges, thus forming a series of glens with a few hill-girt valleys interspersed.
These mountain ranges determine the course of the Ri ver ⅛ rivers, which are divided by the cross ranges into four groups. The first of these extends from Kumäon eastward as far as Diwalgiri, and consists of the affluents of the Kâli, Sârju, Kurnâli, Eastern Sârju, and Râpti, all of which ultimately form the Gogra or Gogari, and flow into the
Ganges. The second group, known to the Nepalese as the Sapt Gandaki, rise from the peaks between Diwalgiri and Gosâïn Thän, and unite at Trebëni Ghât to form the Gandak. The third is a group of smaller rivers draining the great valley of Nepal, the valleys of Chitlong, Banëpa, and Panouti, and portions of the terai around the Chiriyaghati range of hills. These are the various branches of the Bur Gandak, the lesser Räpti, the Bägmati, and Kumla. East of this again is the fourth group, known to the Nepalese as the Sapt Kùsi, rising from the peaks between Gosâïn Than and Kinchinjunga, and uniting to form the Sän Küsi, which falls into the Ganges.
Natural There is thus a natural division of the country into four divisions, portions. The most western is the country of the Bâïsi (or twenty-two) räjäs, and contains the towns of Jumla, Doti, and Sulliâna. The second is the country of the Chaubïsi (or twenty-four) räjäs, and contains the towns of Malebum, Pälpa, Görkha, and Noäkote. The third is the district containing Nepal proper, with the capital and many large towns to be mentioned afterwards. The fourth is the eastern portion of Nepal, comprising the country of the Kirätis, and many small towns, such as Khatang and Bijäpur.
In a country possessing such a range of altitudes the flora and fauna are of course very varied, and the transitions from those of tropical to those of temperate and alpine regions are very rapid. For descriptive purposes, Nepal may again be divided into three longitudinal zones. These are—(1) the terai and lower ranges of hills up to 4000 feet in height; (2) the central ranges and high-lying valleys, up to 10,000 feet; and (3) the alpine region, from 10,000 to 29,000 feet in height. These zones are not, however, sharply defined, as the climate varies according to the latitude, the height of intermediate ranges, and the depth of the valleys; so that tropical plants and animals are sometimes found far in the interior, and the more northern species descend along the loftier spurs into the southern zones.
The low alluvial land of the terai is well adapted for Fiera, cultivation, and is, so to speak, the granary of Nepal; but owing to scantiness of population and other causes the greater portion of it consists of swamps, jungles, and forests. The productions here are those of British India,— consisting of cotton, rice, wheat, pulse, sugar-cane, tobacco, opium, indigo, and the fruits and vegetables familiar in the plains of India. The forests yield a magnificent supply of säl, sïsü, and other valuable forest trees; and the jungles abound with acacias, mimosas, cotton tree (Bombax), dâk (Butea frondosa), large bamboos, rattans, palms, and numerous ferns and orchids. On the Chiriyaghati range the common Pinus longifolia grows freely. Tea can be grown on the borders of this and the next zone at a height of from 2000 to 4000 feet. The middle zone supplies rice, wheat, maize, barley, oats, ginger, turmeric, chillies, potatoes, Gucurbitaceae, pineapples, and many varieties of European fruits, vegetables, and flowers. The forests contain tree rhododendrons, Pinus longifolia, oaks, chestnuts, walnuts, maples, hill bamboos, wild cherry, pear, allies of the tea plant, paper plants (Daphne), roses, and many other inhabitants of temperate climes, with various orchids, ferns, and wild flowers. In the alpine zone exist Coniferae of many kinds, junipers, yew, box, hollies, birch, dwarf rhododendrons, and the usual alpine flora.
The wild animals follow a similar distribution, and the following typical species may be mentioned. In the lowest zone are found the tiger, leopards, wolves, hyaenas, and jackals, the elephant and rhinoceros, the gaur (Gavaeus gaurus), gayal (Gavaeus frontalis), wild buffalo or arna, many species of deer, and the black bear (Ursus labiatus). Among the birds are found the pea-fowl, francolins, wild jungle fowl, and the smaller vultures, &c. In the middle zone there are leopards the Himalayan black bear (Ursus tibetanus), the wild dog, cats of many sorts, squirrels, hares, porcupines, the pangolin, and some species of deer and antelope. Among the birds are the larger vultures and eagles, the fowl pheasants (Gallophasis), chukor, hill partridges, &c. In the alpine zone are found the true bear (Ursus isabellinus, or brown bear), the yäk, musk deer, wild goats and sheep, marmots, &c. Among the birds are the eagle-vulture (Gypaetus), the blood pheasant (Ithaginis cruentus), snow pheasant (Tetraogallus himalayensis), snow partridge (Lerwa nivicola∖ the horned and crested pheasants, &c. Geese, ducks, waders of all sorts, and other migratory birds are found in abundance in the two lower zones.
The lowest zone in some directions abounds in fossils; and deposits of lignite, and even of true coal, are met with, the latter notably at a spot south of Palpa. The middle zone is rich in limestone and marbles, and abounds with minerals, such as iron, copper, zinc, lead, and sulphur. Copper is found near the surface in many places, and there are remains of mines both at Märkhu and in the great valley of Nepal. Mineral springs, both hot and cold, are numerous. Traces of silver, and also of gold, have been found in the alpine zone.
The races occupying Nepal are very numerous. To the north, inhabiting the higher mountains and valleys, dwell the Bhotiyas or Tibetans. To the west lie the Gurungs and Magars. The Murmis, Görkhälis, and Newärs occupy the central parts; and the Kirätis, Limbus, and Lepchas occupy the eastern districts. Besides these there are many small tribes residing in the terai and some other malarious districts, known as Däris, Bhrämus, Kumhas, Manjis, &c., but generally classed together by the Nepalese as Äoulias, or dwellers in the malarious or äoul districts. These are probably descendants of immigrants from the lower castes of Hindus, occupying the borderlands of the terai. Among the forests of the lower eastern region are also to be found some small savage tribes, kno¾n as Chëpangs and Kusündas.
All the races except the Görkhälis and Äoulias are of a decidedly Mongolian appearance, being generally short and robust, and having flat faces, oblique eyes, yellow complexions, straight black hair, and comparatively hairless faces. The Newärs, according to the Vamçâvalï or native history, trace their descent from the races of Bengal, but this is rendered more than doubtful both by their appearance and language. The Görkhälis (Görkhas or Ghoor-khas) are descendants of the Brähmans and Räjputs who were driven out of Hindustan by the Moslems, and took refuge in the western hilly lands, where they ultimately became the dominant race. As a rule they still retain traces of their descent in face and figure, though they have become much mixed up with the other races by intermarriage.
The Bhotiyas, Newärs, Limbüs, Kerätis, and Lepchas are all Buddhists, but their religion has become so mixed up with Hinduism that it is now hardly recognizable. The Newärs have entirely abandoned the monastic institutions of Buddhism, and have in great measure adopted the rules of caste, though even these sit but lightly upon them. They burn their dead, eat the flesh of buffaloes, goats, sheep, ducks, and fowls, and drink beer and spirits. The Görkhälis, Magars, and Gurungs are Hindus, but the last two are by no means strict in the observance of their religion, though there are some peculiarities which they carefully preserve. Thus, for instance, the Magars will eat pork but not buffalo’s flesh, whereas the Gurungs eat the buffalo but not the hog.
The various races have all separate languages, or at least dialects. The Görkhälis use Parbatiya, a modern dialect of Sanskrit, which is also used by the western tribes. The Newärs have a distinct language and alphabet, or rather alphabets, for three are known to their pandits, though only one is now in use. Their language greatly resembles the Tibetan, but is now corrupted with many Sanskrit words. The Bhotiyas use the Tibetan language and alphabet.
There are no public schools nor provision for education; but the children of all well-to-do people are taught by the family priests or their parents; and some of the higher classes send their children to be educated at Patna, Benares, or Calcutta, so that many of them speak English fluently. The bulk of the labouring classes is quite illiterate.
The modern literature of the country is undeserving of notice, being of the most frivolous description; but Nepal is a perfect storehouse of ancient Sanskrit literature, and some of the oldest MSS. in that language as yet known to scholars have been found there.
The portion of Nepäl, exclusive of the terai, which is open to Europeans is the “valley of Nepäl,” containing the capital of the country, and a few adjacent smaller valleys. There is only one means of access used by Europeans, and this indeed is in general resorted to by the natives, as the other routes to the capital are longer and far more difficult. The road runs nearly north from Segowli, passing through the terai and säl forests, to Bichiakori; then through the beds of mountain streams, through a pass in the Chiriyaghati range, and through another säl forest, to Hetoura; thence by a wide and good road to Bhimphedi at the foot of the Sisaghuri range of hills. So far the route is practicable for carts and baggage animals, but from this point the road is a mere rugged footpath over the mountains, through the Chitlong valley-and over the Chandragiri range. The distance from Segowli to Käthmändü is 90 miles.
The valley in extreme length from east to west is about 20 miles, and in breadth from north to south about 15. The surrounding hills vary in height from 6000 to 9720 feet, the level of the valley itself being about 4500 feet above the sea. Tradition has it that Nepäl was once a lake, and appearances are in favour of this view. It is crossed longitudinally by a low limestone range, through which the waters have gradually forced a passage, and in like manner the collected rivers have escaped at the southeast corner of the valley. The former fissure, at Chowbahâl, is said to have been made by Vishnu, and the latter by Bodhisatwa Manjusri.
The surface of the valley consists of a series of tablelands (tars) and wide beds of streams (khölas), with here and there a few well-wooded knolls, generally surmounted by temples.
There are three principal streams, the Bagmati, Vishnumati, and Manohra, besides many small tributaries of these. All the rivers rise within the valley, except the Bagmati, which springs from the northern side of the Seopûri peak, and enters the valley through a ravine at the northeast corner. They all unite and pass through a long narrow gorge in the limestone range, already mentioned, at Chowbahâl, and ultimately escape from the valley at Kotwaldär.
There are three large towns, Käthmändü, the capital, with some 50,000 inhabitants, Pâtan with about 30,000, and Bhätgäon with 30,000 also. The houses are from two to four stories in height, built of brick, and tiled. The windows and balconies are of wood, and are elaborately carved. There are numerous handsome temples in all the towns, the majority of which are pagoda-shaped and built of brick, with roofs of copper, which is sometimes gilt. The streets are narrow, and they, as well as the squares, are all paved with brick or stone. In front of the temples generally stand monoliths surmounted by figures of Garür, or of the founder, made of brass gilt, or sometimes of black stone. Besides these three large towns, there are at least twenty smaller towns, and numerous villages, all of which possess many temples. Some of these, as for instance those of Pashupati, Bodh-nätha, and Symbhunätha, are considered of great sanctity. Many thousands of pilgrims come at one festival to worship at Pashupati, and it is there that the dying are brought to be immersed in the Bagmati, the dead are burned, and satis are immolated.
In Nepal, as in India, the year may be divided into the rainy, cold, and hot seasons. The rains begin in June and last till October, but the fall is not so heavy or continuous as in the plains of Hindustan. The cold season extends from the middle of October to the middle of April. During these months the climate is delicious. Hoar-frost and thin ice are common in the mornings, and the thermometer sometimes falls as low as 25° Fahr., but the days are bright and warm. From Christmas to the end of February there are occasional showers of rain; and snow falls on the surrounding low ranges, but is very rarely seen in the valley itself. From April to the beginning of the rains is the hot season, but the thermometer seldom reaches 85° in the shade. The result of observations extending over many years gives an average mean temperature of 60° Fahr., and an annual rainfall of about 60 inches. Violent thunderstorms are not uncommon, and occasionally severe earthquakes occur, as in 1833 and 1866, on the former of which occasions there were great destruction of houses and loss of life in all the large towns.
Where temples are so numerous (there are 2733 shrines in the valley) priests naturally abound, both of the Hindu and Buddhist religions. The festivals too are many in number, and in consequence holidays are incessant. The râi gurû, or high priest, is an influential person in the state, a member of council, and has a large income from Government lands as well as from the fines for offences against caste, &c. Many other priests, gurùs and purohits, have lands assigned to them, and most of the temples have been richly endowed by their founders. Every family of rank has a special priest, whose office is hereditary.
Astrologers are also numerous, and their services are in constant request. One cannot build a house, set out on a journey, commence a war, or even take a dose of physic, without having an auspicious moment selected for him.
All families of good position have at least one baid, or medical man, in constant attendance, and there are also many general practitioners. There are no hospitals nor dispensaries, except the small one attached to the British residency, which is much frequented by the poor. The diseases most prevalent in the country are rheumatism, chronic dyspepsia, skin diseases, syphilis, goitre, and leprosy. In the rains a number of cases of mild intermittent fever, diarrhoea, and dysentery are met with. Fever of a severe typhoid type is common in the crowded lanes and dirty villages; and cholera, when it does break out, commits fearful ravages. Smallpox is almost always present, in consequence of inoculation being greatly resorted to by the Parbatiyas, whilst the Newärs neither vaccinate nor inoculate. Of late years vaccination has been considerably practised by the residency surgeons, especially among the Bhotiyas and the children of the higher ranks.
Much attention is devoted by the Görkhälis to military matters, and the bulk of that race may be said to be soldiers. The standing army consists of about 16,000 men, divided into twenty-six regiments of infantry and two regiments of artillery. Besides this force there is a reserve, consisting of men who have served for a few years and taken their discharge, but who in case of necessity can be called on again to enter the ranks. The regiments are formed on the European system, and similarly drilled and officered. The arms are various, from the old flint musket to the most modern breechloading rifle. Each man also carries a bayonet and a kukhri or native knife. The followers of some of the petty hill rajas are still armed with khoras (heavy curved swords) and bows and arrows. The cavalry is on a very small scale, consisting of only about one hundred men, as the country is not suited for horse exercise. The artillery, however, is on a larger scale, consisting of two regiments; and there is also an attempt at horse artillery. Of late years four mountain batteries drawn by mules have been established. There is a large arsenal well provided with supplies of gunpowder and military stores. There are extensive workshops too, where cannon are cast, and rifles and ammunition of all sorts turned out in large quantities. In the last war with Tibet, in 1854, when the resources of the country were strained to the utmost, the field force consisted of 27,000 men, with 29,000 partially armed coolies and camp followers, and 390,000 unarmed, baggage coolies. About 7000 fighting men only were left to garrison the country.
While the Görkhälis are occupied in military affairs, the agriculture of the valley is carried on by the Newärs. The soil is varied in character, from light micaceous sand to dense ferruginous clay. The whole valley is cultivated and irrigated where practicable, and the slopes of the hills are carefully terraced, so that there is little grazing ground, and few sheep or cattle are kept. There are some milch cows and buffaloes, which are either stall-fed or grazed in the jungles at the foot of the hills. Animals for consumption and sacrifice are all imported, and are consumed as fast as they are brought in. In the cold season the Bhotiyas bring large flocks of sheep and goats laden with bags of borax, salt, and saltpetre. These are sold for consumption, except a few that are retained to carry back the bags. These droves are generally accompanied by ponies and some of the large Tibetan dogs. These dogs are powerful, fierce, shaggy animals, about the size of a small Newfoundland dog. Poultry are kept and used by the Newärs, especially ducks, the eggs of which are in great demand even among the orthodox Hindus. The crops grown in the valley consist of rice, both the transplanted and the dry-sown or gyah varieties, wheat, pulse, murwah, maize, buckwheat, chillies, radishes, mustard, garlic, onions, ginger, turmeric, sugar-cane, potatoes, ground nuts, many species of cucumbers and pumpkins, &c. Space will not allow a description to be given of the modes of cultivating these. Nothing but articles of food is allowed to be grown in the valley; hence its capabilities for producing tea, cotton, aud tobacco are unknown. All of these, however, are grown in other districts, both in the hills and the terai. Large cardamoms are extensively grown at the base of the hills, and form an important article of export. The hemp plant (Cannabis indica) grows wild, and is used both for manufacturing purposes and for producing the resinous extract and other intoxicating products which are exported. Plants producing dyes, such as madder or manjit, are grown in some places; and drugs, such as chirata and atees, are collected and exported. The better class of soils yields a return of about Rs. 180 per khait, and the poorest about Rs. 90 per khait. From some of the finer soils as many as three crops of various sorts are obtained annually. The land-measures in use are the jäna = 75 square yards, 4 jänas = 1 ropni, 25 ropnis = l khait, or 7500 square yards.
The Newärs are also fond of horticulture. Many European fruits, flowers, and vegetables have been introduced during the last fifty years, and grow freely. The country is famous for its oranges and pine-apples. Flowers are grown and sold for religious purposes, and even wild flowers are brought into the market aud much used by the Newär women in adorning their hair, as well as for offerings at the shrines. Many wild fruits are collected and sold in the markets. Apples and pears, of English stock, thrive well; apricots and plums are good; peaches and grapes grow freely and are of large size, but they seldom ripen before the rains begin, when they rot.
All the trade and manufactures of the country are in the hands of the Newärs, and a few Kashmiris and natives of Hindustän. The trade in European goods is chiefly carried on by the latter, whilst the Newärs deal in corn, oil, salt, tobacco, and articles of domestic manufacture. The trade with India is carried on at numerous marts along the frontier, at each of which a customs station is established, and the taxes are collected by a thikadär, or farmer. The Newärs also carry on the trade with Tibet, through a colony which has been for many years established at Lhasa. There are two principal routes to Tibet. One of these runs north-east from Kâthmândü to the frontier-station of Küti or Niläm, crossing the Himalayan range at a height of 14,000 feet; the other passes out of the valley at the north-west corner, and runs at first upwards along the main branch of the Gandak, crossing the Himalayas, near Kirong, at a height of 9000 feet. All goods on these routes are carried on men’s backs, except the salt, &c., carried in bags by the Bhotiya sheep and goats. The principal imports from Hindustan are raw cotton, cotton goods, woollen goods, silks and velvets, hardware, cutlery, beads, jewels, coral, saddlery, shoes, guns, gunpowder, vermilion, indigo, lac, tea, betel-nut, spices, paper, sugar, tobacco, oils, sheet copper, goats, cattle, buffaloes; and from Tibet, musk, medicines, yaks’ tails, tea, woollen cloth, blankets, borax, salt, saltpetre, paper-plant, honey, wax, sheep, goats, yaks, ponies, silver, gold. The exports to Hindustan include wax, paper-plant, musk, yaks’ tails, medicines, cardamoms, borax, sulphate of copper, brass pots, iron pots, ponies, elephants, hawks, hides and horns (buffalo), rice, ghee, oil seeds, red chillies, madder, potatoes, oranges; and to Tibet, broad cloth, raw cotton, cotton goods, tobacco, sugar, opium, coral, jewels, pearls, spices, betelnut, copper pots, iron pots, and hardware.
To estimate the exact value of such an extensive trade, passing through so many channels, is almost impossible, especially as the Nepalese are utterly regardless of statistics. Recent estimates, however, value the exports and imports to and from the British provinces at £1,686,000 annually; and the value of those to and from Tibet is probably at least half that amount. Duties are levied on exports and imports, which will be noticed under the head of revenue.
The Ne wars are skilful workmen. Their bricks are excellent, and so also is their pottery, for which certain towns are famous, such as Thêmi and Noâkote. As carpenters they excel, though the use of the large saw is still unknown, and planks are cut with chisel and mallet. Some of the wood carvings on the temples and large houses are most artistic in design and bold in execution, though unfortunately they are too often of a most obscene character. The manufactures are few, consisting chiefly of coarse cotton cloths, paper made of the inner bark of the paper-plants {Daphne), bells, brass and iron utensils, weapons, and ornaments of gold and silver.
At one time Nepal supplied Tibet with its silver coinage, but this was abandoned on account of the adulterations introduced by the Nepalese. The ancient coins, specimens of which are still to be met with, were made by hand. The modern coinage is struck by machinery, a regular mint having been established by Sir Jung Bahadur at Kâthmândü. [table]
The gold coinage and the silver rupee are seldom seen, the ordinary currency consisting of the copper dams and paisä, and the môhar or half rupee. Besides the machine-made paisa two other kinds are in general use. One, the Bhutwâliya paisa, is made at Teusan in the Palpa district, and consists of a square lump of pure copper with a rough stamp on it. The other, the Lohiya paisä, is also a rough square lump of copper, but is much adulterated with iron. It is chiefly used in the eastern districts. The total coinage in 1875-76 was—silver mδhars, Rs. 214,000; Bhutwâliya paisa, Rs. 186,000; Lohiya paisä, Rs. 43,000; flat paisä, Rs. 123,000.
However fond the Nepalese may be of asserting their independence, there is no doubt that they acknowledge the supremacy of China, as they periodically send an embassy with presents to Peking. The British too have considerable influence with the Government in regard to their foreign relations; but in all matters of domestic policy the Nepalese brook no interference, and they are most jealous of anything that has a tendency to encroach on their independence.
Theoretically the government of Nepäl is a pure despotism, and the räjä is paramount. Practically, for the last century, all real power has been in the hands of a prime minister and his faction; and much of the modern history of the country consists of accounts of the struggles of the various factions for power. Under the prime minister there is a council, consisting of the relations of the king, the räj gurü, the generals, and a few other officials known as kâjïs and sirdärs, which is consulted on all important business, and which forms a court of appeal for disputed cases from the courts of law. There are separate civil and criminal courts, but the distinction is not always observed, as difficult cases are often transferred from one to the other.
The old savage code with its ordeals by fire and water, and its punishments by mutilation and torture, was abolished by Sir Jung Bahädur after his return from England. Treason, rebellion, and desertion in time of war are punished by death. Bribery and peculation by public servants are punished by dismissal from office, and a fine with imprisonment, the latter of which may be commuted at the rate of Rs. 5 per mensem. Murder and the killing of cows are capital offences. Manslaughter and maiming cows are punished by imprisonment for life, and other offences against the person or property by imprisonment or fine. Offences against caste are heavily punished by fine and imprisonment. Iu some cases all the offender’s property is confiscated, and he and his family may even be sold as slaves. Slavery is an institution of the country, and all families of rank possess many slaves, who are employed in domestic and field labour. They are in general well treated, and are carefully protected by law. The price of slaves ranges from Rs. 100 to Rs. 200. There are three large prisons in the valley, one for males and two for females. The prisoners are kept in irons, and employed in public works of various sorts. They are allowed six pice per diem for subsistence at the capital, and five pice in other districts. There are no bankruptcy laws, and the liability of a debtor descends from father to son. The marriage laws are somewhat peculiar. Among the Görkhälis of course the laws resemble those of other Hindus as regards the marriage of widows, polygamy, sati (suttee), &c. An offending wife is imprisoned for life, and her paramour, after his guilt has been proved before the law courts, is cut down in public by the injured husband. The culprit gets a start of a few yards and runs for his life. If he escapes he is free, but in general he is tripped up by the onlookers and his fate is certain, as the husband is entitled to strike thrice with his kukhri. Among some of the hill tribes polyandry is still practised, and the Bhotiyas seem to regard the marriage tie with perfect indifference. Among the Newärs, every girl, while still an infant, is married with much ceremony to a bel fruit, which is then thrown into some sacred stream. As the fate of the fruit is unknown, a Newärin is supposed never to become a widow. At the age of puberty a husband is selected, but the woman can at any moment divorce herself by placing a betel-nut under her husband’s pillow and taking her departure. Adultery is therefore but slightly punished. The woman is merely divorced, and her paramour has to make good to the husband the expenses incurred at the marriage. A Newärin on the death of her husband may, if she chooses, become a sati, but the privilege is very seldom taken advantage of.
The revenue of Nepäl is about ninety-six lakhs of rupees, i.e., £9,600,000. The chief sources of it are the land-tax, customs, mines, forests, and monopolies. About 10 per cent, of the terai lands, and 20 per cent, of the hill lands, are private property. Some lands were assigned by the Gδrkhali räjäs to Brähmans, soldiers, and others, and these are untaxed. Others, which were the gifts of the old Newär kings, pay from 4 to 8 annas per bigah. All such grants of land, however, are subject to a heavy fine on the coronation of a new räjä. Land which does not produce rice is lightly taxed, but in the valley of Nepäl, and wherever rice is grown, the Government tax or rent is one half of the produce of the land. Waste lands, when brought into cultivation, are rent free for ten years, after which for five years the tax is only 4 annas per. bïgah, and the cultivator receives one-tenth of the cleared land rent free for his life. A considerable revenue in the shape of royalty is obtained from mines of copper, iron, &c. The taxes on merchandise amount to from 12 to 14 per cent, on the value of the goods carried to and from British India, and from 5 to 6 per cent, is charged on goods exported to Tibet. The revenue, when collected by the various sübas, is transmitted under an escort to the Government treasury, and at the end of the year the surplus is deposited in the Mül Dhükatî, or Government cellars, whence it is never withdrawn except in great emergencies. A yearly surplus has been accumulating in this manner for many years.
There are three principal eras in use in Nepal. The Samvat of Vikramäditya commences fifty-seven years before the Christian era, the Säka era of Sälivähana begins seventy-eight years after the Christian era, and the Nepalese Samvat dates from October 880 A.D. The Sri-Harsha and Käligat eras are also sometimes used. The measurement of time is regulated by a copper vessel with a small hole in the bottom, which is floated on water and fills and sinks sixty times a day. Each time it sinks a gong or ghari is struck, in progressive numbers from dawn to noon; after noon the first ghari struck indicates the number of gharis which remain of the day till sunset. Day is considered to begin when the tiles on a house can be counted, or when the hairs on the back of a man’s hand can be discerned against the sky. Sixty bipalas=l palâ; 60 palâs = 1 ghari or 24 minutes; 60 gharis=1 day of 24 hours.
. Nepal and the somewhat similar country of Kashmir are peculiar among the H indu states of In dia in possessing an historical literatu re. The Nepalese Vamçâvalï professes to start from a very early period in the Satya Yuga, when the present valley was still a lake. The earlier portion of it is devoted to the Satya and Trêta Yugas, and contains mythological tales and traditions havin*g reference to various sacred localities in the country. During these two Yugas, and also the Dwäpur Yuga, the Vamçâvalï deals in round numbers of thousands of years.
In the beginning of the Kâli Yuga, the Gupta dynasty is said to have been founded by Në-Muni, from whom the country takes its name of Nepal. Lists are then given of the various dynasties, with the lengths of the reigns of the râjâs. The dynasties mentioned are the Gupta, Ahïr, Kirâti, Sômavanshï, Suryavanshî, Thäkuri or Râjput, Vaishya Thâkurî, second Râjput, and Kärna-taki dynasties. The country was then invaded by Mukunda-sêna, and after his expulsion various Vaishya Thäkuri dynasties are said to have held the throne for a period of 225 years. The chronology of the Vamçâvalï up to this period is very confused and inaccurate; and, though the accounts of the various invasions and internal struggles, mixed up as they are with grotesque legends and tales, may be interesting and amusing, they can hardly be considered authentic. Some of the names of the râjâs, and the dates of their reigns, have been determined by coins, the colophons of old MSS., and certain inscriptions on the temples and ancient buildings. For instance, Ançu-varma, of the Thäkuri dynasty, reigned about 633 A.n., as he is mentioned by the Chinese traveller Hwen Tsang, who visited Nepal. His name too is found in an inscription still extant. In like manner it is ascertained from MSS. that Rudra-dêva-Varma was reigning in 1008; Lakshmikâma-dêva from 1015 to 1040; Padma-dêva, of the Vaishya Thäkuri dynasty, in 1065; Mäna-dëva, of the second Râjput dynasty, in 1139; Ananta-Malla, 1286-1302; Harisinha-dëva, 1324; Jayastithi-Malla, 1385-1391. Much information as to the chronology of the various dynasties can be obtained from the catalogue of the Cambridge MSS. compiled by Mr Cecil Bendall, Μ. A., and also from his papers on the ancient coins of the country. Inscriptions too have been edited by Professor Bühler in the Indian Antiquary, vol. ix. Detailed lists of the räjäs are to be found in Kirkpatrick’s Account of Nepal, in Hodgson’s Essays, Prinsep’s papers in the Asiatic Society's Journal, and Wright’s History of Nepal.
The records begin to be more accurate from the time of the invasion and conquest of the country by Harisinha-dëva, the räjä of Simraungarh, 1324. This räjä was driven from Simraungarh by Tughlak Shäh of Delhi, but seems to have found little difficulty in the conquest of Nepäl. There were only four râjâs of this Ayodhyä dynasty, and then the throne was occupied by Jayabhadra-Malla, a descendant of Abhaya-Malla, one of the Râjput dynasty, who reigned in the 13th century. There were eight räjäs of this dynasty. The seventh, Jayastithi-Malla, who reigned for forty-three years (1386-1429), appears to have done much in forming codes of laws, and introducing caste and its rules among the Newärs. In the reign of the eighth räjä, Yaksha-Malla, the kingdom was divided into four separate states,—namely, Banëpa, Bhätgäon or Bhaktäpur, Kântipur or Käthmändü, and Lalitäpur or Pätan. There was only one räjä of Banëpa, who died without issue. The Malla dynasty in the other three branches continued in power up to the conquest of the country by the Görkhälis in 1768.
The Görkhälis (Ghörkhas or Ghoorkas) claim descent from the räjäs of Chitaurgarh, in Rijputâna, near Tonk. They were driven out of their own country by the victorious Moslems, and took refuge in the hilly districts about Kumäon, whence they gradually pushed their way eastwards to Lamjung, Görkha, Noäkote, and ultimately to the valley of Nepäl, and as far as Sikhim.
Prithiwi-näräyana Säh came to the throne in 1742. From an early period he seems to have devoted all his energies to the conquest of Nepäl, but it took him upwards of twenty-five years to accomplish his object. During the early part of the 18th century Nepäl was visited by Italian missionaries, who founded a mission at Pätan, which appears to have been in a flourishing state at the time of the Görkhäli invasion. Father Giuseppe has given a short account of the conquest in vol. ii. of the Asiatic Researches, the details of which are fully corroborated by the Vamçâvalï. Strange to say, that work contains no reference whatever to the presence of Christians in the country. Prithiwi-näräyana entered Käthmändü in 1768, and in the course of the following year also conquered Pätan and Bhätgäon. In the final struggle, which took place at Bhätgäon, Jayaprakäsa (the räjä of Käthmändü) was wounded, and sh·rtly afterwards he died at Pashüpati. Ranjit-Malla, the aged räjä of Bhätgäon, was allowed to retire to Benares, where he ended his days. Tëj Narsinha, the räjä of Pätan, was kept in confinement till his death. During the latter years of the war Jayaprakäsa applied to the British for assistance, and a small force, under Captain Kinloch, was sent into the terai in 1765, but it was repulsed by the Görkhas.
Prithiwi-näräyana diedin 1774. He left two sons, Pratäpa-sinha Säh and Bahädur Säh. The former succeeded his father, but died in 1777, leaving an infant son, Rana Bahädur Säh. On the death of Pratäpa-sinha, his brother, who had been in exile, returned to Nepäl and became regent. The mother of the infant king, however, was opposed to him, and he had again to flee to Bettiah, where he remained till the death of the räni, when he again became regent, and continued so till 1795. During this time the Görkhas were busily annexing all the neighbouring petty states, so that in 1790 their territories extended from Bhutän to Kashmir, and from Tibet to the British provinces. At length, in 1790, they invaded Tibet, and were at first successful; but they were thus brought into contact with the Chinese, who in 1791 sent a large force to invade Nepäl. In 1792 the Chinese advanced as far as Noäkote, and there dictated terms to the Nepalese.
In 1791 the Görkhas had entered into a commercial treaty with the British, and hence, when hard pressed, they applied for assistance against the Chinese to Lord Cornwallis. In consequence of this Colonel Kirkpatrick was despatched to Nepäl, and reached Noäkote in the spring of 1792, but not till after peace had been concluded. One result of this embassy was the ratification of another commercial treaty on 1st March 1792.
In 1795 Rana Bahädur removed his uncle, Bahädur Säh, from the regency, and two years subsequently put him to death. From this time up to 1799 the king, who seems to have been insane, perpetrated the most barbarous outrages, till at length his conduct became so intolerable that he was forced to abdicate in favour of his son, Girvän-yuddha Vikrama Säh, who was still an infant. Rana Bahädur once again recovered the throne in 1804, but was assassinated in 1805.
In October 1801 another treaty was signed by the British and Nepalese authorities, and Captain W. D. Knox was appointed resident at the Nepalese court, which he reached in April 1802. He soon became dissatisfied with the conduct of the Nepalese, and he was withdrawn in 1803. From this time the Nepalese earned on a system of encroachment and outrage on the frontier, which led to a declaration of war by the British in November 1814. At first the British attacks were directed against the western portion of the Nepalese territory, and under Generals Marly, Wood, and Gillespie several disasters were met with. General Gillespie himself was killed while leading an assault on a small fort called Kalunga. General Ochterlony was more successful, and the Görkhas were driven beyond the Kâli river, and began to negotiate for peace. Arms, however, were soon taken up again, and Ochterlony, who was put in command, in January 1816, advanced directly on the capital in the line of the route that is now in use. He soon fought his way as far as Mukwänpür, and the Nepalese sued for peace. A treaty was concluded in March, by which the Nepalese relinquished much of their newly acquired territory, and agreed to allow a British residency to be established at Käthmändü. In November the räjä died, and was succeeded by his infant son, the reins of government being held by General Bhïmasëna Thäpa.
From this time the records for many years furnish little of interest except a history of struggles for office between the Thäpa and Pänre factions, and futile attempts at forming combinations with other states in Hindustän against the British.
In 1817 Dr Wallich visited Nepäl, and pursued his botanical researches for a year.
In 1839 Bhïmasëna’s enemies succeeded in driving him from power, and he committed suicide, or was murdered, in prison. The Kâla Pânrë faction then came into power, and there were frequent grave disputes with the British. War, however, was averted by the exertions of the resident, Mr B. H. Hodgson.
In 1843 Mätabar Singh, the nephew of Bhïmasëna, returned from exile, soon got into favour at court, and, as a necessary consequence, speedily effected the destruction of his old enemies the Kâla Pânrës, who were seized and executed in May 1843. At this time mention begins to be made of a nephew of Mätabar Singh, Jung Bahädur, the eldest of a band of seven brothers, sons of a käji or state official. He rose rapidly in the army and in favour at the court, especially with one of the ranis, who was of a most intriguing disposition. In 1844 he was a colonel in the army, and Mätabar Singh expressed some alarm at his growing influence to Sir Henry (then Major) Laλvrence, the resident at the time. This alarm proved well founded, for on the 18th of May 1845 Jung Bahädur effected the murder of his uncle, and immediately thereafter, with the aid of the räni, took a prominent part in the government. After a short but turbulent interval of intrigue, Jung Bahädur determined to get rid of his enemies at one fell swoop, and most thoroughly carried out his design by what is known as the Köt massacre, on the 15th September 1846. From that time till the day of his death Jung Bahädur was in reality the ruler of Nepäl. ∏is old friend, the intriguing räni, was banished, and all posts of any consequence in the state were filled by Jung, his brothers, and other relatives. In 1850, finding himself securely seated in power, Jung Bahadur paid a visit to England, which made a great impression on his acute intellect, and ever after he professed and proved himself to be a staunch friend of the British. On his return in 1851, he at once devoted himself to reforming the administration of the country. Every department in the state in turn felt the benefit of his resolute will, and, whatever may have been the means by which he gained power, it must be allowed that he exercised it so as to prove himself the greatest benefactor his country has ever possessed. In 1853 a treaty for the extradition of criminals was proposed, but it was not ratified till February 1855. In 1854 the Nepalese entered into a war with Tibet, which lasted with varying success till March 1856, when peace was concluded on terms very favourable to Nepal.
In June 1857 intelligence of the mutiny of the native troops in Hindustan reached Nepal, and produced much excitement. Jung Bahadur, in spite of great opposition, stood firm as a friend of the British. On the 26th June 4000 troops were sent off to assist, and these rendered good service in the campaign against the mutineers. Jung himself followed on the 10th of December, with a force of 8000 men, 500 artillerymen and 24 guns, but somewhat late to be of much use. Many of the mutineers and rebels, including the infamous Nâna Sâhib, took refuge in the Nepalese terai, and it was not till the end of 1859 that they were finally swept out of the country. The Nâna was said to have died of fever in the terai, along with several others of the rebel leaders, and it is probable that this was the case, although for many years tales were circulated of his being still alive, and of his having been seen in various parts of Nepal and British India. His wives and a few attendants resided for many years near Kâthmândü.
In return for the aid afforded to the British, Jung Bahadur was well rewarded. He was created a G.C.B., and in 1873 a G.C.S.I., honours of which he was not a little proud. The troops employed received food and pay from the day of leaving Kâthmândü; handsome donations were given to those severely wounded, and to the relatives of the killed; great quantities of muskets and rifles were presented to the Nepalese Government; and, to crown all, a large portion of the terai was restored to Nepâl. This ground contains most valuable sâl and sïsü forests, and yields a revenue of several lâkhs of rupees yearly.
From the termination of the mutiny Nepalese history has been uneventful. The country has been prosperous, and the relations with the British have continued to be most friendly. Nevertheless the restrictions on commerce, and the prohibitions against Europeans entering the country, or travelling beyond certain narrow limits, are as rigidly enforced as they were a hundred years ago. Sir Jung Bahâdur died suddenly in the terai in 1877. In spite of all the exertions he had made to bring about a better state of things, three of his wives were allowed to immolate themselves on his funeral pyre. His brother, Sir Ranadip Singh Bahâdur, G.C.S.I., succeeded him as prime minister. Shortly after his accession to power a plot was formed against him, but he showed himself as prompt to meet such an. emergency as his late brother had been, for nearly forty of the conspirators were seized and executed in a summary manner, and others, who escaped, are now living in exile.
The râjâs of the Gôrkhâlî line in Nepâl, with dates of accession, are—Prithiwi-nârâyana Sâh (1768), Pratâpa-sinha Sâh (1774), Rana Bahâdur Sâh (1777), Girvän-yuddha Vikrama Sâh (1799), Rajendra Vikrama Säh (1816), Surendra Vikrama Sâh (1847), Prithiwi Vir Vikrama Sâh (1881).
