These mountain ranges determine the course of the Ri ver ⅛ rivers, which are divided by the cross ranges into four groups. The first of these extends from Kumäon eastward as far as Diwalgiri, and consists of the affluents of the Kâli, Sârju, Kurnâli, Eastern Sârju, and Râpti, all of which ultimately form the Gogra or Gogari, and flow into the

Ganges. The second group, known to the Nepalese as the Sapt Gandaki, rise from the peaks between Diwalgiri and Gosâïn Thän, and unite at Trebëni Ghât to form the Gandak. The third is a group of smaller rivers draining the great valley of Nepal, the valleys of Chitlong, Banëpa, and Panouti, and portions of the terai around the Chiriyaghati range of hills. These are the various branches of the Bur Gandak, the lesser Räpti, the Bägmati, and Kumla. East of this again is the fourth group, known to the Nepalese as the Sapt Kùsi, rising from the peaks between Gosâïn Than and Kinchinjunga, and uniting to form the Sän Küsi, which falls into the Ganges.

Natural There is thus a natural division of the country into four divisions, portions. The most western is the country of the Bâïsi (or twenty-two) räjäs, and contains the towns of Jumla, Doti, and Sulliâna. The second is the country of the Chaubïsi (or twenty-four) räjäs, and contains the towns of Malebum, Pälpa, Görkha, and Noäkote. The third is the district containing Nepal proper, with the capital and many large towns to be mentioned afterwards. The fourth is the eastern portion of Nepal, comprising the country of the Kirätis, and many small towns, such as Khatang and Bijäpur.

In a country possessing such a range of altitudes the flora and fauna are of course very varied, and the transitions from those of tropical to those of temperate and alpine regions are very rapid. For descriptive purposes, Nepal may again be divided into three longitudinal zones. These are—(1) the terai and lower ranges of hills up to 4000 feet in height; (2) the central ranges and high-lying valleys, up to 10,000 feet; and (3) the alpine region, from 10,000 to 29,000 feet in height. These zones are not, however, sharply defined, as the climate varies according to the latitude, the height of intermediate ranges, and the depth of the valleys; so that tropical plants and animals are sometimes found far in the interior, and the more northern species descend along the loftier spurs into the southern zones.

The low alluvial land of the terai is well adapted for Fiera, cultivation, and is, so to speak, the granary of Nepal; but owing to scantiness of population and other causes the greater portion of it consists of swamps, jungles, and forests. The productions here are those of British India,— consisting of cotton, rice, wheat, pulse, sugar-cane, tobacco, opium, indigo, and the fruits and vegetables familiar in the plains of India. The forests yield a magnificent supply of säl, sïsü, and other valuable forest trees; and the jungles abound with acacias, mimosas, cotton tree (Bombax), dâk (Butea frondosa), large bamboos, rattans, palms, and numerous ferns and orchids. On the Chiriyaghati range the common Pinus longifolia grows freely. Tea can be grown on the borders of this and the next zone at a height of from 2000 to 4000 feet. The middle zone supplies rice, wheat, maize, barley, oats, ginger, turmeric, chillies, potatoes, Gucurbitaceae, pineapples, and many varieties of European fruits, vegetables, and flowers. The forests contain tree rhododendrons, Pinus longifolia, oaks, chestnuts, walnuts, maples, hill bamboos, wild cherry, pear, allies of the tea plant, paper plants (Daphne), roses, and many other inhabitants of temperate climes, with various orchids, ferns, and wild flowers. In the alpine zone exist Coniferae of many kinds, junipers, yew, box, hollies, birch, dwarf rhododendrons, and the usual alpine flora.

The wild animals follow a similar distribution, and the following typical species may be mentioned. In the lowest zone are found the tiger, leopards, wolves, hyaenas, and jackals, the elephant and rhinoceros, the gaur (Gavaeus gaurus), gayal (Gavaeus frontalis), wild buffalo or arna, many species of deer, and the black bear (Ursus labiatus). Among the birds are found the pea-fowl, francolins, wild jungle fowl, and the smaller vultures, &c. In the middle zone there are leopards the Himalayan black bear (Ursus tibetanus), the wild dog, cats of many sorts, squirrels, hares, porcupines, the pangolin, and some species of deer and antelope. Among the birds are the larger vultures and eagles, the fowl pheasants (Gallophasis), chukor, hill partridges, &c. In the alpine zone are found the true bear (Ursus isabellinus, or brown bear), the yäk, musk deer, wild goats and sheep, marmots, &c. Among the birds are the eagle-vulture (Gypaetus), the blood pheasant (Ithaginis cruentus), snow pheasant (Tetraogallus himalayensis), snow partridge (Lerwa nivicola∖ the horned and crested pheasants, &c. Geese, ducks, waders of all sorts, and other migratory birds are found in abundance in the two lower zones.

The lowest zone in some directions abounds in fossils; and deposits of lignite, and even of true coal, are met with, the latter notably at a spot south of Palpa. The middle zone is rich in limestone and marbles, and abounds with minerals, such as iron, copper, zinc, lead, and sulphur. Copper is found near the surface in many places, and there are remains of mines both at Märkhu and in the great valley of Nepal. Mineral springs, both hot and cold, are numerous. Traces of silver, and also of gold, have been found in the alpine zone.

The races occupying Nepal are very numerous. To the north, inhabiting the higher mountains and valleys, dwell the Bhotiyas or Tibetans. To the west lie the Gurungs and Magars. The Murmis, Görkhälis, and Newärs occupy the central parts; and the Kirätis, Limbus, and Lepchas occupy the eastern districts. Besides these there are many small tribes residing in the terai and some other malarious districts, known as Däris, Bhrämus, Kumhas, Manjis, &c., but generally classed together by the Nepalese as Äoulias, or dwellers in the malarious or äoul districts. These are probably descendants of immigrants from the lower castes of Hindus, occupying the borderlands of the terai. Among the forests of the lower eastern region are also to be found some small savage tribes, kno¾n as Chëpangs and Kusündas.

All the races except the Görkhälis and Äoulias are of a decidedly Mongolian appearance, being generally short and robust, and having flat faces, oblique eyes, yellow complexions, straight black hair, and comparatively hairless faces. The Newärs, according to the Vamçâvalï or native history, trace their descent from the races of Bengal, but this is rendered more than doubtful both by their appearance and language. The Görkhälis (Görkhas or Ghoor-khas) are descendants of the Brähmans and Räjputs who were driven out of Hindustan by the Moslems, and took refuge in the western hilly lands, where they ultimately became the dominant race. As a rule they still retain traces of their descent in face and figure, though they have become much mixed up with the other races by intermarriage.

The Bhotiyas, Newärs, Limbüs, Kerätis, and Lepchas are all Buddhists, but their religion has become so mixed up with Hinduism that it is now hardly recognizable. The Newärs have entirely abandoned the monastic institutions of Buddhism, and have in great measure adopted the rules of caste, though even these sit but lightly upon them. They burn their dead, eat the flesh of buffaloes, goats, sheep, ducks, and fowls, and drink beer and spirits. The Görkhälis, Magars, and Gurungs are Hindus, but the last two are by no means strict in the observance of their religion, though there are some peculiarities which they carefully preserve. Thus, for instance, the Magars will eat pork but not buffalo’s flesh, whereas the Gurungs eat the buffalo but not the hog.

The various races have all separate languages, or at least dialects. The Görkhälis use Parbatiya, a modern dialect of Sanskrit, which is also used by the western tribes. The Newärs have a distinct language and alphabet, or rather alphabets, for three are known to their pandits, though only one is now in use. Their language greatly resembles the Tibetan, but is now corrupted with many Sanskrit words. The Bhotiyas use the Tibetan language and alphabet.

There are no public schools nor provision for education; but the children of all well-to-do people are taught by the family priests or their parents; and some of the higher classes send their children to be educated at Patna, Benares, or Calcutta, so that many of them speak English fluently. The bulk of the labouring classes is quite illiterate.

The modern literature of the country is undeserving of notice, being of the most frivolous description; but Nepal is a perfect storehouse of ancient Sanskrit literature, and some of the oldest MSS. in that language as yet known to scholars have been found there.

The portion of Nepäl, exclusive of the terai, which is open to Europeans is the “valley of Nepäl,” containing the capital of the country, and a few adjacent smaller valleys. There is only one means of access used by Europeans, and this indeed is in general resorted to by the natives, as the other routes to the capital are longer and far more difficult. The road runs nearly north from Segowli, passing through the terai and säl forests, to Bichiakori; then through the beds of mountain streams, through a pass in the Chiriyaghati range, and through another säl forest, to Hetoura; thence by a wide and good road to Bhimphedi at the foot of the Sisaghuri range of hills. So far the route is practicable for carts and baggage animals, but from this point the road is a mere rugged footpath over the mountains, through the Chitlong valley-and over the Chandragiri range. The distance from Segowli to Käthmändü is 90 miles.

The valley in extreme length from east to west is about 20 miles, and in breadth from north to south about 15. The surrounding hills vary in height from 6000 to 9720 feet, the level of the valley itself being about 4500 feet above the sea. Tradition has it that Nepäl was once a lake, and appearances are in favour of this view. It is crossed longitudinally by a low limestone range, through which the waters have gradually forced a passage, and in like manner the collected rivers have escaped at the southeast corner of the valley. The former fissure, at Chowbahâl, is said to have been made by Vishnu, and the latter by Bodhisatwa Manjusri.

The surface of the valley consists of a series of tablelands (tars) and wide beds of streams (khölas), with here and there a few well-wooded knolls, generally surmounted by temples.

There are three principal streams, the Bagmati, Vishnumati, and Manohra, besides many small tributaries of these. All the rivers rise within the valley, except the Bagmati, which springs from the northern side of the Seopûri peak, and enters the valley through a ravine at the northeast corner. They all unite and pass through a long narrow gorge in the limestone range, already mentioned, at Chowbahâl, and ultimately escape from the valley at Kotwaldär.

There are three large towns, Käthmändü, the capital, with some 50,000 inhabitants, Pâtan with about 30,000, and Bhätgäon with 30,000 also. The houses are from two to four stories in height, built of brick, and tiled. The windows and balconies are of wood, and are elaborately carved. There are numerous handsome temples in all the towns, the majority of which are pagoda-shaped and built of brick, with roofs of copper, which is sometimes gilt. The streets are narrow, and they, as well as the squares, are all paved with brick or stone. In front of the temples generally stand monoliths surmounted by figures of Garür, or of the founder, made of brass gilt, or sometimes of black stone. Besides these three large towns, there are at least twenty smaller towns, and numerous villages, all of which possess many temples. Some of these, as for instance those of Pashupati, Bodh-nätha, and Symbhunätha, are considered of great sanctity. Many thousands of pilgrims come at one festival to worship at Pashupati, and it is there that the dying are brought to be immersed in the Bagmati, the dead are burned, and satis are immolated.

In Nepal, as in India, the year may be divided into the rainy, cold, and hot seasons. The rains begin in June and last till October, but the fall is not so heavy or continuous as in the plains of Hindustan. The cold season extends from the middle of October to the middle of April. During these months the climate is delicious. Hoar-frost and thin ice are common in the mornings, and the thermometer sometimes falls as low as 25° Fahr., but the days are bright and warm. From Christmas to the end of February there are occasional showers of rain; and snow falls on the surrounding low ranges, but is very rarely seen in the valley itself. From April to the beginning of the rains is the hot season, but the thermometer seldom reaches 85° in the shade. The result of observations extending over many years gives an average mean temperature of 60° Fahr., and an annual rainfall of about 60 inches. Violent thunderstorms are not uncommon, and occasionally severe earthquakes occur, as in 1833 and 1866, on the former of which occasions there were great destruction of houses and loss of life in all the large towns.

Where temples are so numerous (there are 2733 shrines in the valley) priests naturally abound, both of the Hindu and Buddhist religions. The festivals too are many in number, and in consequence holidays are incessant. The râi gurû, or high priest, is an influential person in the state, a member of council, and has a large income from Government lands as well as from the fines for offences against caste, &c. Many other priests, gurùs and purohits, have lands assigned to them, and most of the temples have been richly endowed by their founders. Every family of rank has a special priest, whose office is hereditary.

Astrologers are also numerous, and their services are in constant request. One cannot build a house, set out on a journey, commence a war, or even take a dose of physic, without having an auspicious moment selected for him.

All families of good position have at least one baid, or medical man, in constant attendance, and there are also many general practitioners. There are no hospitals nor dispensaries, except the small one attached to the British residency, which is much frequented by the poor. The diseases most prevalent in the country are rheumatism, chronic dyspepsia, skin diseases, syphilis, goitre, and leprosy. In the rains a number of cases of mild intermittent fever, diarrhoea, and dysentery are met with. Fever of a severe typhoid type is common in the crowded lanes and dirty villages; and cholera, when it does break out, commits fearful ravages. Smallpox is almost always present, in consequence of inoculation being greatly resorted to by the Parbatiyas, whilst the Newärs neither vaccinate nor inoculate. Of late years vaccination has been considerably practised by the residency surgeons, especially among the Bhotiyas and the children of the higher ranks.

Much attention is devoted by the Görkhälis to military matters, and the bulk of that race may be said to be soldiers. The standing army consists of about 16,000 men, divided into twenty-six regiments of infantry and two regiments of artillery. Besides this force there is a reserve, consisting of men who have served for a few years and taken their discharge, but who in case of necessity can be called on again to enter the ranks. The regiments are formed on the European system, and similarly drilled and officered. The arms are various, from the old flint musket to the most modern breechloading rifle. Each man also carries a bayonet and a kukhri or native knife. The followers of some of the petty hill rajas are still armed with khoras (heavy curved swords) and bows and arrows. The cavalry is on a very small scale, consisting of only about one hundred men, as the country is not suited for horse exercise. The artillery, however, is on a larger scale, consisting of two regiments; and there is also an attempt at horse artillery. Of late years four mountain batteries drawn by mules have been established. There is a large arsenal well provided with supplies of gunpowder and military stores. There are extensive workshops too, where cannon are cast, and rifles and ammunition of all sorts turned out in large quantities. In the last war with Tibet, in 1854, when the resources of the country were strained to the utmost, the field force consisted of 27,000 men, with 29,000 partially armed coolies and camp followers, and 390,000 unarmed, baggage coolies. About 7000 fighting men only were left to garrison the country.

While the Görkhälis are occupied in military affairs, the agriculture of the valley is carried on by the Newärs. The soil is varied in character, from light micaceous sand to dense ferruginous clay. The whole valley is cultivated and irrigated where practicable, and the slopes of the hills are carefully terraced, so that there is little grazing ground, and few sheep or cattle are kept. There are some milch cows and buffaloes, which are either stall-fed or grazed in the jungles at the foot of the hills. Animals for consumption and sacrifice are all imported, and are consumed as fast as they are brought in. In the cold season the Bhotiyas bring large flocks of sheep and goats laden with bags of borax, salt, and saltpetre. These are sold for consumption, except a few that are retained to carry back the bags. These droves are generally accompanied by ponies and some of the large Tibetan dogs. These dogs are powerful, fierce, shaggy animals, about the size of a small Newfoundland dog. Poultry are kept and used by the Newärs, especially ducks, the eggs of which are in great demand even among the orthodox Hindus. The crops grown in the valley consist of rice, both the transplanted and the dry-sown or gyah varieties, wheat, pulse, murwah, maize, buckwheat, chillies, radishes, mustard, garlic, onions, ginger, turmeric, sugar-cane, potatoes, ground nuts, many species of cucumbers and pumpkins, &c. Space will not allow a description to be given of the modes of cultivating these. Nothing but articles of food is allowed to be grown in the valley; hence its capabilities for producing tea, cotton, aud tobacco are unknown. All of these, however, are grown in other districts, both in the hills and the terai. Large cardamoms are extensively grown at the base of the hills, and form an important article of export. The hemp plant (Cannabis indica) grows wild, and is used both for manufacturing purposes and for producing the resinous extract and other intoxicating products which are exported. Plants producing dyes, such as madder or manjit, are grown in some places; and drugs, such as chirata and atees, are collected and exported. The better class of soils yields a return of about Rs. 180 per khait, and the poorest about Rs. 90 per khait. From some of the finer soils as many as three crops of various sorts are...