BERG(Ducatus Montensis), a former duchy of Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine, bounded on the N. by the duchy of Cleves, E. by the countship of Mark and duchy of Westphalia, and on the S. and W. by the bishopric of Cologne. Its area was about 1188 square miles. The district was raised in 1108 to the rank of a countship, but did not become a duchy till the 14th century, after it had passed mto the possession of the Jülich family. On the extinction of this house in 1609, Austria laid claim to the duchy as an imperial fief; but, in keeping with the wishes of the inhabitants, it was administered conjointly by the electors of-Saxony and Brandenburg and the Elector Palatine till 1624, when by the Düsseldorf treaty the last of the three obtained the sole authority. In 1806 it was bestowed by Napoleon, along with the duchy of Cleves and other possessions, on Murat, who bore the title of grand duke of Berg; and after Murat’s elevation to the throne of Naples, it was transferred to Louis, the son of the king of Holland. By the Congress of Vienna in 1815 it was made over to Prussia, and now forms a flourishing part of her territory.

BERGAMA, a town of Asia Minor, with 2500 inhabitants. See Pergamus.

BERGAMO, a northern province of Italy, bounded on the N. by Sondrio, E. by Tyrol and Brescia, S. by Cremona, and W. by Milan and Como. The northern portion is mountainous and well wooded, while the southern belongs to the alluvial plain of Lombardy. To the N. and W. of Lake Iseo there are numerous mineral wells, the most important of which are those of Trescoro. Marble is abundant in the mountains, and there are valuable iron mines. At an early period the wealth of the capital appears to have been increased by the working of copper mines in the district. (See Finazzi, Sidle antiche miniere di Bergamo, Milan, 1860.) The vine and flax are largely grown, and the culture of the silk-worm is extensively carried on. The people speak a rough dialect, and are liable to be laughed at by the other Italians. The two stock characters of popular Italian comedy, Harlequin or Truffaldino and the sly Brighella, were both at one time represented as natives of the Bergamo district....

BERGAMOT, Oil of, an essential oil obtained from the rind of the fruit of a species of Citrus, regarded by Risso as C. bergamia, but not generally believed to constitute a distinct species. The bergamot is a small tree with leaves and flowers like the bitter orange, and a round fruit nearly 3 inches in diameter, with a thin lemon-yellow smooth rind. The tree is cultivated in the neighbourhood of Reggio, in Calabria, whence the entire supply of bergamot oil is drawn. The oil is contained in small vesicles in the rind, from which it can be expressed by simple pressure in the hand. An old method of obtaining the oil, now almost superseded, is by skinning the fruit, and pressing the outside of the rind against a sponge. The rind being turned over so that the outside becomes concave, the vesicles are. easily ruptured by hand pressure against the sponge, which absorbs the oil as it escapes. The oil is now obtained by placing several fruits in a saucer shaped apparatus, the surface of which is cut into radiating sharp-edged grooves. Against the sharp edges of this dish the fruits are rapidly revolved by means of a heavy cover placed above it, which is moved by a cog wheel. The oil vessels are raptured by pressure against the knife edges, and the oil which exudes falls through small perforations in the bottom into a vessel placed underneath. It is allowed to rest till a greasy substance—bergamot camphor—deposits, after which it is bottled for use. Bergamot oil is a limpid greenish-yellow fluid of a specific gravity of 0’869, of a powerful but pleasant citrine odour and an aromatic bitterish taste. It consists of a mixture of two essential oils, the most volatile of which is a pure hydrocarbon isomeric with oil of turpentine; the other, containing oxygen, being regarded as ...

BERGEN, a city and seaport on the west coast of Norway, capital of the province of South Bergen, in 5° 2 9'E. long, and 60° 23' N. lat. It is situated on a rocky promontory at the head of a deep bay called the Vaag, has a fine harbour with two good entrances, and is surrounded by hills, some of which attain the height of 2000 feet. Towards the sea it is defended by the ancient fortress of Bergenhuus, the citadels of Fredericksberg and Sverresberg, and some lesser works. The appearance of the town, which rises in the form of an amphitheatre and is generally well built, is decidedly picturesque, with its wooden houses painted of various colours. It contains a cathedral, several churches, of which the oldest, St Mary’s, dates from the 12th century, hospitals, a lazaretto, a national museum, a diocesan college, a naval academy, a school of design, public libraries, various charitable institutions, and a theatre. It is the seat of a bishopric, and possesses a tribunal of secondary jurisdiction and one of the three public treasuries of Norway. Bergen has a considerable export trade, which consists of stockfish, lobsters, fish-roes, herrings, whale oil, horns, skins, rock moss, and timber, and is chiefly carried on with the northern countries of Europe. In 1867 the number of steamships that entered the port was 164, with a tonnage of 28,454. The imports of that year amounted to £92,600, and the exports to £344,000. Bergen was founded in the 11th century by Olaf the Peaceful, king of Norway. In 1445 the Hanseatic League established a factory in the city, and continued to have almost the sole control of the trade till 1558, when it was expelled by the Norwegians, who found its presence oppressive. There is still a kind of German colony in the place, which keeps up the ...

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, a town of Holland, in the province of North Brabant, situated on both sides of the River Zoom, near its confluence with the East Scheldt, in 51° 29' N. lat. and 4° 17' E. long. It is about 15 miles N. of Antwerp, and 22 W.S.W. of Breda. The houses are well built, the market-places and squares handsome and spacious. It possesses a port and an arsenal, and contains a townhouse, a Latin school, and an academy of design and architecture. The tower of the old castle is remarkable for an increase of its breadth from the bottom upwards, and for its liability to be rocked when struck by a strong wind. There are numerous tile-works and potteries of fine ware; and a considerable trade is carried on in anchovies caught in the Scheldt....

BERGERAC, the chief town of an arrondissement in the department of Dordogne, in France, situated in a fertile plain, 30 miles S.S.W. of Périgueux, on both banks of the Dordogne, which is here crossed by a fine bridge of five arches and rendered navigable by a large dam. The town is rather poorly built, and, in spite of its age, contains no monuments of antiquarian interest. It is, however, a place of great industrial activity, has a communal college, tribunals of primary jurisdiction and commerce, and a public library; and manufactures paper, iron and copper wares, hats, hosiery, and leather. The wines of the neighbourhood are in good repute, and form an important article in the trade of the town, which is principally carried on with Bordeaux and Libourne. Bergerac owes its origin to the abbey of St Martin, which was founded in 1080, and during the English invasions it played an important part as a fortress. In the 16th century it was a very flourishing and populous place, but most of its inhabitants having embraced Calvinism it suffered greatly during the religious wars. Its fortifications and citadel were demolished by Louis XIII. in 1621, and it was injuriously affected by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Population in 1872, 8679.

BERGMANN, Torbern Olof, Swedish chemist and naturalist, was born at Catherinberg, West Gothland, in 1735. At the age of seventeen he entered the University of Upsala, and distinguished himself by extraordinary assiduity in study, directing his attention more particularly to the natural sciences. During a residence at home rendered necessary by his weak health, he employed himself in collecting specimens of insects and plants, which he forwarded to Linnaeus, who was much pleased with them. In 1756 he gained great reputation by his memoir on the Coccus aquaticus, which, contrary to the opinion of Linnaeus, he proved to be nothing but the ovum of a certain species of leech. Some years later he was made professor of physics at Upsala, and published numerous scientific memoirs. In 1767 the chair of chemistry and mineralogy having become vacant through the resignation of Wallerius, Bergmann resolved to become a candidate. He had not hitherto devoted special attention to chemistry, but in a very short period by incredible application he produced as evidence of his fitness for the post a paper on the composition of alum, which is still regarded as a masterpiece. He was appointed to the chair, which he held till his death in 1784. In 1776 he had declined an offer from the king of Prussia inviting him to settle in Berlin. Bergmann was an unusually acute and sagacious analytical chemist, and made extensive and constant use of the laboratory. He described very carefully the properties of carbonic acid gas, and gave a valuable analysis of mineral waters. His researches in mineralogy, to which he applied his geometrical knowledge, were even more important, and led the way to Hauy’s discovery and classification. The theory of elective or chemical affinities, which he worked out very ...