JACKSON, chief city of Madison county, Tennessee, U.S., is situated on the Forked Deer river, about 70 miles north-east of Memphis. Its chief trade is in cotton, of which many thousand bales are exported annually. Jackson has flour and planing mills, and manufactories of railway and other carriages, besides smaller industries. Of its several educational institutions the chief is West Tennessee college, founded in 1844, which had in 1874-75 four professors and one hundred students. The SouthWestern Baptist university was opened in 1875. The population in 1880 numbered 5371.

JACKSON, Andrew (1767-1845), seventh president of the United States, was born March 15, 1767, at the Waxhaw or Warsaw settlement (whose position in relation to the later boundaries of North and South Carolina is unknown), whither his parents had immigrated from Carrickfergus in Ireland in 1765. Jackson had no regular education. He had some slight share in the war of independence, and was taken prisoner in 1781. He studied law at Salisbury, North Carolina, and was admitted to the bar and began to practise at Nashville in Tennessee. In 1791, on the first incorrect report that Mrs Rachel Robards (nee Donelson) had succeeded in getting a divorce bill from her husband passed in Virginia, Jackson married her; when, later, it was passed, they were remarried. In 1796 Jackson assisted to frame the constitution of Tennessee, and represented that State in the federal congress, where he distinguished himself as an irreconcilable opponent of Washington. In 1797 he was elected a United States senator; but he resigned the following year. He was judge of the supreme court of Tennessee from 1798 to 1804. In 1804-5 he contracted a friendship with Burr; and at the latter’s trial in 1807 Jackson was one of his conspicuous champions. Up to the time of his nomination for the presidency, the biographer of Jackson finds nothing to record but military exploits in which he displayed perseverance, energy, and skill of a very high order, and a succession of personal acts in which he showed himself ignorant, violent, perverse, quarrelsome, and astonishingly indiscreet. In 1806 he killed Charles Dickinson in a duel. In 1813, as major-general of militia, he commanded in the campaign against the Creek Indians in Georgia and Alabama, and there first attracted public notice by his talents. In May 1814 he was commissioned as majorgeneral in the regular army to serve against the English; in November he captured Pensacola, used by the English as a base of operations; and on January 8, 1815, he inflicted· a severe defeat on the enemy before New Orleans. During his stay in New Orleans, he declared martial law, and carried out his measures with unrelenting sternness, banishing from the town a judge who attempted resistance. When civil law was restored, Jackson was fined $1000 for contempt of court; in 1844 congress ordered the fine with interest ($2700) to be repaid. In 1818 Jackson received the command against the Seminoles. His conduct in following them up into the Spanish territory of Florida gave rise to much hostile comment in the cabinet and. in congress; but the negotiations for the purchase of Florida put an end to the diplomatic question. In 1821 Jackson was appointed military governor of Florida, and there again he came into collision with the civil authority. From this, as from the previous troubles, J. Quincy Adams extricated him.

In August 1822 the house of representatives of Tennessee nominated Jackson for president; and in 1823 he was elected to the senate at Washington. The rival candidates for the office of president were Adams, Crawford, and Clay. Jackson obtained the largest number of votes in the electoral college; but no one had an absolute majority. At the election by the house of representatives (February 9, 1825) Adams was chosen. Jackson, however, was recognized by the abler politicians as the coming man; Van Buren and others, going into opposition under his banner, waged from the first a relentless and factious war on the administration. Van Buren was the most adroit politician of his time; and Jackson was in the hands of very astute men, who advised and controlled him. He was easy to lead when his mind was in solution; and he gave his confidence freely where he had once placed it. He was not suspicious, but if he withdrew his confidence he was implacable. When his mind crystallized on a notion that had a personal significance to himself, that notion became a hard fact that filled his field of vision. When he was told that he had been cheated in the matter of the presidency, he was sure of it, although those who told him were by no means so. ·

There was great significance in the election of Jackson in 1828. A new generation was growing up under new economic and social conditions. They felt great confidence in themselves, and great independence. They despised tradition and Old World ways and notions; and they accepted the Jeffersonian dogmas, not only as maxims, but as social forces—the causes of the material prosperity of the country. By this generation, therefore, Jackson was recognized as a man after their own heart. They liked him because he was vigorous, brusque, uncouth, relentless, straightforward, and open. They made him president in 1828, and he fulfilled all their expectations, He had 178 votes in the electoral college against 83 given for Adams. Though the work of redistribution of offices began almost at his inauguration, it is yet an incorrect account of the matter to say that Jackson corrupted the civil service. His administration is rather the date at which a system of democracy, organized by the use of patronage, was introduced into the federal arena by Van Buren. The administration had two parties in it from the first, Van Buren’s and Calhoun’s, and the president’s interference in a purely private matter brought about a rupture. In April 1831 the whole cabinet resigned; Jackson and Calhoun quarrelled; and the former transferred to Van Buren his support for succession in the presidency.

In 1832 Jackson was re-elected by a large majority over Clay, his chief opponent. The battle raged mainly around the re-charter of the Bank of the United States. It is probable that Jackson’s advisers in 1828 had told him, though erroneously, that the bank had worked against him, and then were not able to control him. The first message of his first presidency had contained a severe reflexion on the bank; and in the very height of this second campaign (July 1832) he vetoed the re-charter, which had been passed in the session of 1831-32. Jackson interpreted his re-election as an approval by the people of his war on the bank; and after the exciting episode of South Carolina’s opposition to the tariff-rates he pushed it with energy. In September 1833 he ordered the public deposits in the bank to be transferred to selected local banks, and entered upon the “experiment” whether these could not act as fiscal agents for the Government, and whether the desire to get the deposits would not induce them to adopt sound rules of currency. During the next session the senate passed a resolution condemning his condu et. J ack-son protested, and after a hard struggle the resolution was ordered to be expunged from the record, January 16, 1837.

Jackson was very successful in collecting old claims against various European nations, for spoliations inflicted under Napoleon’s continental system. Aiming at a currency consisting largely of specie, he caused the payment of these claims to be received, and imported in specie as far as possible; and in 1836 he ordered land-agents to receive for land nothing but specie. About the same time a law passed congress for distributing among the States some $35,000,000 balance belonging to the United States, the public debt having all been paid. The eighty banks of deposit in which it was lying had regarded this sum almost as a permanent loan, and had inflated credit on the basis of it. The necessary calling in of their loans in order to meet the drafts in favour of the States, combining with the breach of the overstrained credit between America and Europe and the decline in the price of cotton, brought about a crash which prostrated the whole financial, industrial, and commercial system of the country for six or seven years. The crash came just as Jackson was leaving office; the whole burden fell on his successor, Van Buren.

Jackson is the only president of whom it may be said that he went out of office far more popular than he was when he entered. When he went into office he had no political opinions, only some popular notions. He left his party strong, perfectly organized, and enthusiastic on a platform of low expenditure, payment of the debt, no expenditure for public improvement or for glory and display in any form, and low taxes. His name still remained a spell to conjure with, and the politicians sought to obtain the assistance of his approval for their schemes; but in general his last years were quiet and uneventful. He died near Nashville, June 8, 1845.

Biographies of Jackson have been written by J. H. Eaton, 1824; William Cobbett, 1834; Amos Kendall, 1844; and James Parton, 3 vols., 1860.

JACKSON, Thomas Jonathan (1824-1863), “Stonewall Jackson,” a distinguished Confederate general in the American civil war, was born in Harrison county, Virginia, 21st January 1824, and came of that Scotch-Irish stock to whose hardy virtues the middle States of America are largely indebted for the pure and resolute virtues of their people. His early education was only such as could be furnished by an obscure country school. Thence he passed to West Point military academy, where, though he was at first impeded by his meagre acquirements, his indomitable courage and conscientious diligence eventually raised him to a foremost place. At West Point he exhibited the qualities by which he was distinguished in the splendour of his career,—courage, patience, constancy of purpose, inflexible fidelity to duty, and an artless simplicity of character which engaged instant and universal confidence. Graduating at twenty-two, he was appointed lieutenant of artillery in the army of the United States, and participated, with distinction, in several of the most important battles in Mexico. After the war he resigned his commission, and accepted the professorship of natural philosophy in the Virginia military institute at Lexington, a position which he held until the outbreak of hostilities between the Union and the Confederate States. During his sojourn at Lexington, he entered the Presbyterian communion, and was remarkable ever after for the fervour of his religious devotion. In political discussions or agitations, Major Jackson—such was his title by brevet—had never engaged; but in principle and by profession he was a State-right Democrat of the Virginia school; in other words, he maintained the legitimacy of negro slavery and the sovereign right of a State to withdraw from the Union, and therefore to the secession movement of 1861 he at once accorded his sympathy. On the organization of the Virginia troops he was commissioned colonel of infantry by Governor Letcher, who, long intimate with him, adequately appreciated his yet undisclosed military genius.

Jackson’s first exploit in the war of secession was the capture, on May 3, 1861, of the Federal arsenal at Harper’s Ferry. Soon afterwards he received the command of a brigade—the brigade which, by its immovable fortitude at Bull Run, turned the tide of battle in that long doubtful struggle, and, from the admiration of its comrades, extorted for itself and its chief the now historic name of “Stonewall.”

Detached from the army at Manassas for separate service in the Shenandoah Valley, Jackson soon signalized his genius for war. Placing himself between the converging columns of Shields, Milroy, and Banks, he struck one after the other; and, with a force inferior to his adversaries separately, he eventually drove them back upon Washington in utter defeat In this “campaign of the valley” Jackson displayed true military instinct and the highest military art. By vigilance, sagacity, celerity and secrecy of movement, and faultless tactical skill on the field of battle, he achieved the greatest possible results with the smallest possible means. His reputation was now fixed in the estimation alike of friénd and foe; and, while the Confederate States were filled with the renown of his achievements, the Federal forces were in constant terror of his prowess. Having stayed the invasion of Virginia along the line of the valley, Jackson repaired to Richmond to concert with Lee the deliverance of the Confederate capital, then closely pressed by M 4 Clellan. Appointed, meanwhile, to the command of a corps, he suddenly revealed himself on the right flank of the Federal army at Mechanicsville; and in a series of desperately fought engagements he routed the besieging army, and drove M i Clellan to shelter at Harrison’s Landing. Richmond relieved, Jackson, without pause, hastened to confront Pope, who was menacing the city from the north. In the battle of Cedar Run he inflicted signal defeat upon that general, and compelled him to retrace his steps across the Rappahannock.

Reinforced by M'Clellan’s army and fresh troops from the northern States, Pope made a stand at Manassas; but in the second battle on that field he suffered an overthrow as decisive as that sustained by M‘Dowell in the first fight at Bull Run. As usual Jackson’s corps bore the brunt of the battle; and as usual to his skill and courage the Confederate army was mainly indebted for its success. Following up the victory by the invasion of Maryland, Lee detached Jackson for an attack on Harper’s Ferry, again in the hands of the Federalists, and garrisoned by 12,000 troops. In a few days the surrender of the place, with all its force and munitions of war, was announced to Lee, who, slowly retiring before M'Clellan, anxiously expected the arrival of Jackson, that he might turn and crush his pursuer. But before he could effect the desired junction Lee was brought to bay at Antietam, and compelled to accept battle under every disadvantage. Jackson now arrived, however, with two of his divisions, and his presence not only averted an otherwise inevitable disaster, but rescued the Confederate army from the destruction which awaited it if defeated with its rear resting on the river. Henceforth Jackson’s operations were under the immediate eye and command of Lee; and, while at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville his gallantry was as conspicuous as ever, to his illustrious chief belongs the glory of those hard-fought fields.

On the afternoon of May 2, 1863, Jackson fought his last battle. Executing a plan of his own conception, he suddenly struck the flank of the 11th Federal corps, and drove it pell-mell before him. Night fell with the hostile forces in close proximity; and, while Jackson was making a reconnaisance with a view to pressing the pursuit, he was fired on in the dark by men of his own command, and received wounds of which he died on May 10, 1863. His death smote the Confederates with a pang of unspeakable anguish. The fall of their foremost chieftain was bewailed as the omen of the fall of the party.

In deportment Jackson was grave and measured; but he relaxed on approach, and his address was bland and gracious. In conversation he conveyed the impression of a frank, firm character, and of an intellect clear and direct, but in no wise of superior order. No opinion floated languidly in his understanding; he held all his beliefs with an intense earnestness of conviction, and he was prompt and resolute in carrying his convictions into action. He engaged in the war of secession with an unfaltering faith in the justice of the cause and an unhesitating persuasion of its triumph. He was the idol of his troops. At his command they would cheerfully endure any sacrifice or confront any peril. On the field of battle he was never known to lose his self-possession, or to be surprised by any fluctuation of fortune; his quick eye would detect the exigent moment, and his unerring judgment direct the decisive manoeuvre. (r. a. p.*)

JACKSON, William (1730-1803), an English musician of repute, was born at Exeter, in May 1730. His father, a grocer, bestowed a liberal education upon him, but, on account of the lad’s strong predilection for music, was induced to place him under the care of John Silvester, the organist of Exeter Cathedral, with whom he remained about two years. In 1748 he went to London, and studied under John Travers, organist of the king’s chapel. Returning to Exeter, he settled there as a teacher and composer, andin 1777 was appointed subchanter, organist, lay-vicar, and master of the choristers of the cathedral. In 1755 he published his first work, Twelve Songs, which became at once highly popular. His next publication, Six Sonatas for the Harpsichord, was a failure. His third work, Six Elegies for three voices, preceded by an Invocation, ινith an Accompaniment, was very successful, and placed him among the first composers of his day. Dr Burney considered these as the best of Jackson’s works, and added that “no composer copied less from others than Jackson.” His fourth work was another set of Twelve Songs, now very scarce; and his fifth work was again a set of Twelve Songs, all of which are now forgotten. He next published Twelve Hymns, with some good remarks upon that style of composition, although his precepts were better than his practice. A set of Twelve Songs followed, containing some good compositions. Next came an Ode to Fancy, the words by Dr Warton. Twelve Canzonets for two voices formed his ninth work; and one of them—“Time has not thinned my Flowing Hair ”—long held a place at public and private concerts. His tenth work was Eight Sonatas for the Harpsichord, some of which were novel and pleasing. He composed three dramatic pieces,— Lycidas (1767), The Lord of the Manor, to General Burgoyne⅛ words (1780), and The Metamorphoses, a comic opera produced at Drury Lane in 1783, which did not succeed. In the second of these dramatic works, two airs—“Encompassed in an Angel’s Form” and “When first this Humble Roof I knew ”—were great favourites. Some of his church music, published after his death, did not please the critics. In 1782 he published Thirty Letters on Various Subjects, which are well written and interesting. In these he severely attacked canons, and described William Bird’s Non nobis Domine as containing passages not to be endured. But his anger and contempt were most strongly expressed against catches of all kinds, which he denounced as barbarous. In 1791 he put forth a pamphlet, Observations on the Present State of Music in London, in which he found fault with everything and everybody. He published in 1798 The Four Ages, together with Essays on Various Subjects,— a work which gives a favourable idea of his character and of his literary acquirements. It appears that he cultivated a taste for landscape painting, and imitated, not unsuccessfully, the style of his friend Gainsborough. He died July 12, 1803.