The Phoenician colonies on the north coast, Utica, Carthage, <fcc., beginning between 1000 and 800 b.c., established a powerful and civilized empire in a hitherto unknown part of Libya. Their trading expeditions gave them a wide acquaintance with the geography of the country, even with the Atlantic coast as far almost as the equator; but the contempt with which the Roman conquerors treated the literature of the Carthaginians allowed much valuable material to disappear. The historian Sallust, when praetor of Numidia, was still able to use the Punic records which he got interpreters to translate for him (Sall., Jug., 17); and fortunately one record of an exploring voyage along the west coast, preserved in a temple in Carthage, was translated by some Greek traveller and is still available (see Hanno). For all that is known of the Carthaginian rule in Libya see Carthage.

Greek mariners must have visited Libya at a very early period, for the edible lotus of the northern coast is mentioned in the Odyssey.

In the latter part of the 7th century b.o. the Greeks began to colonize the north coast. Between the Carthaginian territory and the borders of Egypt they planted a number of cities, and the Pentapolis of which Cyrene was the chief was among the richest and most flourishing of all the Greek states (see Cyrene). When the Persians invaded Egypt they made some attempt to extend their empire over Libya; but the expedition of Cambyses (about 525 rc.) was too unfortunate to encourage them to further efforts. The camel was introduced into Egypt under the Persian rule, and from this time it became easier to make long journeys over the Libyan deserts. Herodotus shows much knowledge of the Sahara, and it is clear that his account must be founded on the reports of traders and caravan guides well acquainted with the desert route. Under the Macedonian kings knowledge of Libya was much extended; they sent exploring expeditions for scientific purposes into Abyssinia, while growing wealth and luxury caused a continually increasing demand for the ivory, spices, and other produce of Libya. In the period 500-200 B.C. it seems certain that commerce was maintained with the countries beyond the Sahara in at least two ways—by the Carthaginian ships trading along the Atlantic coast, and by the overland route across the desert to the Nile. The Roman conquest of Carthage closed the former route. Polybius indeed was commissioned by Scipio to explore the country, and sailed a long way down the west coast; but the Romans themselves had not the maritime enterprise required for such voyages. The record which Polybius wrote for his friend Scipio is quoted by Pliny and Stephanus. Sallust also collected information about the country, and under the emperor Nero an exploring expedition was sent into Abyssinia. The Romans added more to the knowledge of Libya in other ways,—by a better organization of the province and increased facilities of travel and trade, by the frontier wars against surrounding tribes, and finally by the expeditions sent directly into the heart of the country to procure wild animals for the amphitheatre. The passion of the Roman populace for seeing strange animals slaughtered in the public games was gratified by the emperors and magistrates. Enormous numbers of Libyan wild beasts were exhibited in the amphitheatre; even hippopotami and alligators are mentioned. One Roman officer, Maternus, penetrated at least as far as Lake Chad. The Periplus of Arrian preserves a record of the trade along the east coast of Libya in the 1st century. In these ways a fairly accurate knowledge of northern Libya was obtained, and Ptolemy could, in the 2d century, construct a good map of Africa as far south as 11° N., though his idea of the shape of the continent further to the south is less accurate than that of Herodotus.

See Ritter, Erdkunde, i.; Heeren, Historical Researches, or in the German Ideen, vol. ii.; and the geographical works of Forhiger, Kiepert, Bunbury, &c.