That the Ass*yrians used personal decorations of a very distinct character, and possibly made of precious materials, is proved by the bas reliefs. In the British Museum we have a representation of Samsi Vul IV., king of Assyria (825 b.c.). He wears a cross (Plate XL fig. 1) very similar to the Maltese cross of modern times. The still more ancient Egyptian jewellery is distinctly brought before us by the objects themselves, placed with the embalmed bodies of the former wearers in sarcophagi, only to be opened in our own time. The most remarkable collection of Egyptian art in this direction is to be found in the jewellery taken from the coffin of Queen Aah-hotep, discovered by M. Mariette in the entrance to the valley of the Tombs of the Kings in 1859, and now preserved in the Bûlâk museum. In these objects we find the same ingenuity and perfect mastery of the materials as characterize the monumental work of the Egyptians. Hammered work, incised and chased work, the evidence of soldering, the combination of layers of gold plates, together with coloured stones, are all there,—the handicraft being complete in every respect.

A diadem of gold and enamel, found at the back of the head of the mummy of the queen (fig. 2), was fixed in the back hair, showing the cartouche in front. The box holding this cartouche has on the upper surface the titles of the king, “the son of the sun, Aahmes, living for ever and ever,” in gold on a ground of lapis lazuli, with a chequered ornament in blue and red pastes, and a sphinx couchant on each side. A necklace of the order or decoration of the Fly (fig. 3) is entirely of gold, having a hook and loop to fasten it round the neck. A small porcelain cylinder (fig. 4) is ornamented with interlaced lotus flowers in intaglio, having a ring for suspension, and fig. 5 is a gold drop, inlaid with turquoise or blue paste, in the shape of a fig. A gold chain (fig. 7) is formed of wires closely plaited and very flexible, the ends terminating in the heads of water fowl, and having small rings to secure the collar behind. To the centre is suspended by a small ring a scarabeus of solid gold inlaid with lapis lazuli. These scarabei were in constant use in Egyptian ornaments, and were worn in rings by the military caste. We have an example of a bracelet, similar to those in modern use (fig. 6), and worn by all persons of rank. It is formed of two pieces joined by a hinge, and is decorated with figures in repoussé with a ground inlaid with lapis lazuli. A signet ring (fig. 8) has a square revolving bezel on which are four serpents interlaced.

The discoveries of Dr Schliemann at Mycenae and at Hissarlik, the assumed site of ancient Troy, supply further illustrations of ancient jewellery and gold work. In extent and in the wonderful character of the design and workmanship, the relics found at Mycenae present the most perfect examples, although some of the objects brought from the “burnt city” at Hissarlik give evidence of singular skill and ingenuity in the methods of combining the various portions of an ornament and finesse in working the gold. From Mycenae the objects ranged over most of the personal ornaments still in use: necklaces with gold beads and pendants, butterflies (fig. 16), cuttlefish (fig. 10), single and concentric circles, rosettes, and leafage, with perforations for attachment to clothing, crosses (fig. 9), and stars formed of combined crosses, with crosses in the centre forming spikes,—all elaborately ornamented in detail. The spiral forms an incessant decoration from its facile production and repetition by means of twisted gold wire. Grasshoppers or tree crickets in gold repoussé suspended by chains and probably used for the decoration of the hair, and a griffin (fig. 17), having the upper part of the body of an eagle and ’the lower parts of a lion, with wings decorated with spirals, are among the more remarkable examples of perforated ornaments for attachment to the clothing. -There are also perforated ornaments belonging to necklaces, with intaglio engravings of such subjects as Hercules and the Nemean lion, and a duel of two warriors, possibly Hector and Achilles, one of whom stabs his antagonist in the throat. Another has a representation of a lion, very archaic in treatment, the style resembling that of the fore part of the lion found on the statue of Sardis, attributed to Croesus, 560 b.c. There are also pinheads and brooches formed of two stags lying down (fig. 15), the bodies and necks crossing each other, and the horns meeting symmetrically above the heads, forming a finial. The heads of these ornaments were of gold, with silver blades or pointed pins inserted for use. The bodies of the two stags rest on fronds of the date-palm growing out of the stem which receives the pin. Another remarkable series is composed of figures of women with doves (fig. 20). Some have one dove resting on the head; others have three doves, one on the head and the others resting on arms. The arms in both instances are extended to the elbow, the hands being placed on the breasts. These ornaments are also perforated, and were evidently sewed on the dresses, although there is some evidence that an example with three doves has been fastened with a pin.

Mention must be made of an extraordinary diadem found upon the head of one of the bodies discovered in the same tomb with many objects similar to those noticed above. It is 25 inches in length, covered with shieldlike or rosette ornaments in repoussé, the relief being very low but perfectly distinct, and further ornamented by thirty-six large leaves of repoussé gold attached to it. As an example of design and perfection of detail, another smaller diadem found in another tomb may be noted (fig. 11). It is of gold plate, so thick as to require no “piping” at the back to sustain it; but in general the repoussé examples have a piping of copper wire. Diadems of similar form are found on statues of Aphrodite, and also on statuettes of Hercules in ivory, in the Assyrian collection at the British Museum. Fig. 13 represents a remarkably elegant pendant ornament, the design being of an exceptionally beautiful character. A cross of thin gold work formed of four leaves (fig. 18), a finial-like ornament (fig. 19), and the head of a pin or brooch evidently suggested by a butterfly (fig. 14), are all characteristic of the gold work of Mycenae.

The gold ornaments found at Hissarlik, in what Dr Schliemann calls the “Treasury of Priam,” partake in most instances of the same characteristics as those found in the sepulchres at Mycenae. There are necklaces, brooches, bracelets (fig. 29), hair-pins (fig. 23), earrings (figs. 21, 22, 25, 26, 27, 28), with and without pendants, beads, and twisted wire drops. The majority of these are ornamented with spirals of twisted wire, or small rosettes, with fragments of stones in the centres. The twisted wire ornaments were evidently portions of necklaces. A circular plaque decorated with a rosette (fig. 30) is very similar to those found at Mycenae, and a conventionalized eagle (fig. 31) is characteristic of much of the detail found at that place as well as at Hissarlik. They were all of pure gold, and the wire must have been drawn through a plate of harder metal—probably bronze. The principal ornaments differing from those found at Mycenae are diadems or head fillets of pure hammered gold (fig. 24) cut into thin plates, attached to rings by double gold wires, and fastened together at the back with thin twisted wire. To these pendants (of which those at the two ends are nearly three times the length of those forming the central portions) are attached small figures, probably of idols. It has been assumed that these were worn across the forehead by women, the long pendants falling on each side of the face. If, however, the position on which they were found was formerly part of a temple instead of a palace, it may be suggested that they were used as veils for the priests when giving forth the oracles from the shrine.

Jewellery and gold work of a very similar character has been found at Cyprus within the last few years by Major Cesnola. The rings (Plate XII. figs. 5 and 6) have a great resemblance to the Greek, whilst the beetle, which is of green stone set in gold (fig. 6), has a very Egyptian-like appearance. The great similarity in design and workmanship between these Eastern examples and the gold jewellery and personal ornaments found in Peru and Mexico (figs. 1,2, 3, 4) is not a little remarkable. These, however, are more rude in design, though equally good in workmanship.

Greek, Etruscan, and Roman ornaments partake of very similar characteristics. Of course there is variety in design and sometimes in treatment, but it does not rise to any special individuality. Fretwork is a distinguishing feature of all, together with the wave ornament, the guilloche, and the occasional use of the human figure. The workmanship is often of a character which modern gold workers can only rival with their best skill, and can never surpass. The pendant oblong ornament for containing a scroll (Plate XL fig. 34) is an example of this, as also the Italo-Greek earring (fig. 32). The earring (fig. 36) is an exquisite illustration of Greek skill in the introduction of the human figure; the rosette for concealing the hook and the winged ornament at the back of the Cupid are beautifully wrought. The other earrings (figs. 33, 35, 37) are all characteristic. The Etruscan examples are of the same character. The pendant (fig. 40), the rosette (fig. 38), and the plaque of gold (fig. 38) repeat some of the forms found at Mycenae, with possibly a little more classic grace of detail and refinement of workmanship. The brooch (fig. 41) is perhaps the most characteristic example of purely classic design, essentially Greek in its principal details, whilst the workmanship is all that can be desired.

The granulation of surfaces practised by the Etruscans was long a puzzle and a problem to the modern jeweller, until Signor Castellani of Rome discovered gold workers in the Abruzzi to whom the method had descended through many generations, and, by inducing some of these men to go to Naples, revived the art, of which he contributed examples to the London Exhibition of 1872, successfully applied to modern designs.

The Merovingian jewellery of the 5th century, the Anglo-Saxon of a later date, and the Celtic as leading to the Gothic or mediaeval, have each distinguishing features. In the first two the characteristics are thin plates of gold, decorated with thin slabs of garnet, set in walls of gold soldered vertically like the lines of cloisonné enamel, with the addition of very decorative details of filigree work, beading, and twisted gold. In Plate XII. figs. 9 and 13 we have examples of Anglo-Saxon fibulae, the first being decorated with a species of cloisonne, in which garnets are inserted, while the other is in hammered work in relief. A pendant (fig. 8) is also set with garnets. The buckles (figs. 10, 11, 12) are remarkably characteristic examples, and very elegant in design. A girdle ornament in gold, set with garnets (fig. 14), is an example of Carlovingian design of a high class. The Celtic ornaments are of hammered work, adapted to uses now comparatively unknown, but display another style of workmanship,—details in repoussé, fillings in with amber, rock crystal with a smooth rounded surface cut en cabochon, with the addition of vitreous pastes. The minute filigree and plaited work, in combination with niello and enamel, communicate to the ornaments of this class found in Ireland and Scotland an unmistakable Oriental spirit alike in design and workmanship.

In figs. 15 and 17 are illustrations of two brooches. The first is 13th century; the latter is probably 12th century, and is set with paste, amber, and blue. The brooch in the form of a figure of St Christopher bearing the infant Saviour, and supported by his staff (fig. 16), is of silver gilt. Chaucer mentions such a brooch as worn by the yeoman :—“A Crystofre on his brest of silvyr scheue.”

Rings are the chief specimens now seen of mediaeval jewellery from the 10th to the 13th century. They are generally massive and simple. Through the 16 th century a variety of changes arose; in the traditions and designs of the Cinquecento we have plenty of evidence that the workmen used their own designs, and the results culminated in the triumphs of Albert Dürer, Benvenuto Cellini, and Hans Holbein. The goldsmiths of the Italian republics must have produced works of surpassing excellence in workmanship, and reaching the highest point in design as applied to handicrafts of any kind. The use of enamels, precious stones, niello work, and engraving, in combination with skilful execution of the human figure and animal life, produced effects which modern art in this direction is not likely to approach, still less to rival.

In Plate XII. illustrations are given of various characteristic specimens of the Renaissance, and later forms of jewellery. A crystal cross set in enamelled gold (fig. 18) is German work of the 16th century. The pendant reliquary (fig. 19), enamelled and jewelled, is of 16th century Italian work, and so probably is the jewel (fig. 20) of gold set with diamonds and rubies.

The Darnley or Lenox jewel (fig. 21), now in the possession of the Queen, was made about 1576-7 for Lady Margaret Douglas, countess of Lenox, the mother of Henry Darnley. It is a pendant golden heart set with a heart-shaped sapphire, richly jewelled and enamelled with emblematic figures and devices. It also has Scottish mottoes around and within it. The earring (fig. 22) of gold, enamelled, hung with small pearls, is an example of 17th century Russian work, and another (fig. 23) is Italian of the same period, being of gold and filigree with enamel, also with pendant pearls. A Spanish earring, of 18th century work (fig. 24), is a combination of ribbon, cord, and filigree in gold; and another (fig. 25) is Flemish, of probably the same period: it is of gold open work set with diamonds in projecting collets. The old French-Normandy pendant cross and locket (fig. 26) presents a characteristic example of peasant jewellery; it is of branched open work set with bosses and ridged ornaments of crystal. The earring (fig. 27) is French of 17th century, also of gold open work set with crystals. A small pendant locket (fig. 28) is of rock crystal, with the cross of Santiago in gold and translucent crimson enamel; it is 16th or 17th century Spanish work. A pretty earring of gold open scroll work (fig. 29), set with minute diamonds and three pendant pearls, is Portuguese of 17th century, and another earring (fig. 30) of gold circular open work, set also with minute diamonds, is Portuguese work of 18th century. These examples fairly illustrate the general features of the most characteristic jewellery of the dates quoted.

During the 17th and 18th centuries we see only a mechanical kind of excellence, the results of the mere tradition of the workshop,—the lingering of the power which when wisely directed had done so much and so well, but now simply living on traditional forms, often combined in a most incongruous fashion. Gorgeous effects were aimed at by massing the gold, and introducing stones elaborately cut in themselves, or clustered in groups. Thus diamonds were clustered in rosettes and bouquets; rubies, pearls, emeralds, and other coloured special stones were brought together for little other purpose than to get them into a given space in conjunction with a certain quantity of gold. The question was not of design in its relation to use as personal decoration, but of the value which could be got into a given space to produce the most striking effect.

The traditions of Oriental design as they had come down through the various periods quoted, were comparatively lost in the wretched results of the rococo of Louis XIV. and the inanities of what modern revivalists of the Anglo-Dutch call “Queen Anne.” In the London Exhibition of 1851, the extravagances of modern jewellery had to stand a comparison with the Oriental examples contributed from India. Since then we have learnt more about these works, and have been compelled to acknowledge, in spite of what is sometimes called inferiority of workmanship, how completely the Oriental jeweller understood his work, and with what singular simplicity of method he carried it out. The combinations are always harmonious, the result aimed at always achieved; and, if in attempting to work to European ideas the jeweller failed, this was rather the fault of the forms he had to follow, than due to any want of skill in making the most of a subject in which half the thought and the intended use were foreign to his experience.

A collection of peasant jewellery got together by Castellani for the Paris Exhibition of 1867, and now in the South Kensington Museum, illustrates in an admirable manner the traditional jewellery and personal ornaments of a wide range of peoples in Europe. This collection, and the additions made to it since its acquisition by the nation, show the forms in which these objects existed over several generations among the peasantry of France (chiefly Normandy), Spain, Portugal, Holland, Denmark, Germany, and Switzerland, and also show how the forms popular in one country are followed and adopted in another, almost invariably because of their perfect adaptation to the purpose for which they were designed.

So far we have gone over the progress and results of the jeweller’s art in the past. We have now to speak of the production of jewellery as a modern art industry, in which large numbers of men and women are employed in the larger cities of Europe, but which also has its special localities in which it flourishes, and out of which an important national commerce arises.

Nearly all the great capitals of Europe produce jewellery, but Paris, Vienna, London, and Birmingham are the most important centres. An illustration of methods and processes and the various kinds of jewellery produced at the present day in the manufacture as carried on in London and Birmingham will be sufficient for all practical purposes, and as giving an insight into the technique and artistic manipulation of this branch of art industry; but, by way of contrast, it may be interesting to give in the first place a description of the native working jeweller of Hindustan. Travelling very much after the fashion of a tinker in England, his “budget” contains tools, materials, fire pots, and all the requisites of his handicraft. The gold to be used is generally supplied by the patron or employer, and is frequently in gold coin, which the travelling jeweller undertakes to convert into the ornaments required. He squats down in the corner of a courtyard, or under cover of a veranda, lights his fire, cuts up the gold pieces entrusted to him, hammers, cuts, shapes, drills, solders with the blow-pipe, files, scrapes, and burnishes until he has produced the desired effect. If he has stones to set or coloured enamels to introduce, he never seems to make a mistake; his instinct for harmony...