Geology.— The Grampian range of mountains intersects the county from east to west, and occupies a breadth of about 8 miles in the western and north-western districts, terminating in the north-eastern corner in the promontory of Girdleness. To the north the county slopes into the picturesque" and finely wooded valley of the Dee, and towards the south into the “How (or hollow) of the Mearns,” a continuation of the valley of Strathmore, but it rises again into smaller eminences towards the coast. The highest summit of the Grampians in Kincardineshire is Mount Battock, 2465 feet, but a considerable number range from 1500 to a little above 2000 feet. The southern part of the coast from the North Esk is rocky but low, with considerable stretches of sand; from Bervie to Stonehaven it rises into an almost unbroken line of perpendicular cliffs ranging from 100 to 250 feet in height; from Stonehaven to the mouth of the Dee it is still more bold and rocky, but at the same time more frequently interrupted by creeks and bays, which form natural harbours for a number of fishing villages. The greater part of the county belongs to the Upper Silurian strata of the Highlands, consisting chiefly of gneiss, but towards the west there is a large eruption of granite, and the southern half of the county belongs to the upper strata of Old Red Sandstone. Conglomerate occurs on the coast, and porphyry, sandstone, and whinstone in the southern part of the county. Lime is found, but not in amount sufficient to meet agricultural wants, and large quantities are imported.

Divers and Lakes.— The principal rivers are the Dee, which skirts the northern boundary of the county, and receives the Feugh at Banchory, where are the beautiful falls of Feugh; the North Esk, which after entering it from Forfarshire, receives the tributary of the Luther, and forms a portion of the south-western boundary of the shire; the Bervie, which rises in the Grampians, and after flowing south-eastwards for about 10 miles, falls into the sea at Bervie; and the Carron and Cowie, which flow the one eastward and the other south-eastward to the sea at Stonehaven. The principal lakes are the Loch of Drum, lately reduced from 300 to 100 acres, and Loirston Loch, 27 acres.

Climate, Soil, and Agriculture.— The climate is healthy, but, except on the north side of the Dee, often cold even on the low grounds, owing both to exposure to east winds, especially near the sea-coast, and to the proximity of bleak and chilly uplands. It has, however, been greatly improved by extensive drainage of the marshes. The mean annual is 45’ Fahr., that of summer being 58°, and of winter 1 As, e.g., the commentary On Isαiαh, by Malanimeus, Florence, 1774, 4to; On Hosea, by Mercier, Leyden, 1621, 4to; On Joel, by Leusden, Utrecht, 1657, 8vo; On Obadiah, by Crocius, Bremen, 1673, 4to; On Obadiah, by Bedwell, London, 1601, 4to; On Jonah, by Leusden, Utrecht, 1656, 8vo; On Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, by Neale, Paris, 1557, 4to; On Malachi, by Bohl, Rostock, 1637, 4to; On the Psalms, by Janvier, Paris, 1666, 4to; On Psalms i.-x., by Fagius, Constance, 1544, folio, and with Janvier’s translation in Reland’s Analecta Rabbinica, Utrecht, 1723, 8vo; On Psalm iv., byBourdelot, Paris, 1619, 4to; and on Psalm xix., by Philipp. d’Aquino, 1629, 8vo.

2 That, for instance, On Isaiah, Cracow, 1586, 4to.

3 As that On Zechariah, by M'Caul, London, 1837, 8vo.

i Dr W. Aldis Wright, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, possesses this edition, printed by Cornelio Adelkind at Bombergi’s house, with the remarkable date on the title-page—4ιθl pΓ>K Ω'∏S , ∣N)S (λ - c), he., 1544 of our redemption, showing that the editor was a baptized Jew. Of this edition no other copy is known to us.

5 This was, no doubt, Kimhi’s last production.

37°. A great part of the mountainous district is unsuitable for either pasturage or tillage, and is occupied chiefly by deer forests and grouse moors; but the land in the valley of the Dee, in the “How,” and along the coast is very productive, and is cultivated according to the most advanced methods. A considerable portion of the “How” is, however, on account of the difficulty of drainage, still occupied by moor and moss. The land in this district is richer and stronger than that in the valley of the Dee, but the most fertile region is that along the sea-coast, the soil consisting more generally of a deep loam resting on clay, although in some places it is poor and thin, or stiff and cold.

According to the agricultural returns for 1881, the total area under crops was 120,631 acres, a percentage of 48 - 6, that for 1870 being 47 1. The area under corn crops was 44,803; under green crops, 22,476; under rotation grasses, 46,645; under permanent pasture, 6552 acres. The area under woods was 27,880 acres, while 12 acres were under nursery grounds, and 23 under market gardens. About two-thirds of the area under corn crops is occupied by oats, which in 1881 covered 31,430 acres, while 12,120 acres were under barley, and 577 acres, chiefly in the neighbourhood of the sea-coast, were under wheat, the area of which has been rapidly declining, 55 under rye, 581 under beans, and 40 under pease. Of green crops about four-fifths of the area is tinder turnips and swedes, which in 1881 occupied 18,304 acres, 3696 being occupied by potatoes, 450 by vetches and similar crops, 17 by carrots, and 8 by cabbage. Flax occupied 1 acre, and there were 184 acres fallow. Great improvements have lately been effected in regard to farm buildings and drainage.

The total number of horses, many of which are well-bred Clydesdales, in 1881 was 4798. Of these, 3893 are stated to be used solely for agricultural purposes, and 905 to be kept solely for breeding purposes. Cattle in 1881 numbered 25,013, or an average of 21 to every 100 acres under cultivation, the average for Scotland being 23'9. Much attention is paid to the rearing of stock, and cattle feeding is carried on according to the most advanced methods. The most common breed is the shorthorn, which are bought in for feeding from Ireland, but a few Canadian cattle have also lately been bought. The more common home-bred stock is a cross between shorthoraed and polled; but there are also many valuable herds of the pure polled breed. Sheep in 1881 numbered 24,966, an average of 20 - 7 to every 100 acres under cultivation, the average for Scotland being 141‘3. Blackfaced sheep are of course those chiefly kept on the hill pastures, but on the lowland farms Cheviots or a cross with Leicesters are not uncommon. The number of pigs in 1881 was 1967.

The following table gives a classification of holdings according to size in 1875 and 1880, with the total area under each class of holding [table]

It will thus be seen that about three-fifths of the holdings are under 50 acres in extent, but that their number has within recent years been diminishing. According to the Owners of Lands and Heritages Return, 1872-73, the land, was divided among 1384 proprietors, possessing 244,585 acres, with a gross annual value of £253,393. Of the owners, 1189 possessed less than 1 acre, and the average value per acre was £1, 0s. 6⅛d. Sir Thomas Gladstone owned 45,062 acres; Earl of Kintore, 17,370; James Young, 16,659; Viscount Arbuthnott, 13,560; Sir J. H. Burnett, 12,025; R. W. Duff, 8722; Mrs Badenoch Nicolson, 8481; W. N. Forbes, 6528. A comprehensive account of the agriculture of Kincardineshire, by James Macdonald, is contained in the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society for 1881.

Manufactures.— Woollen manufactures are carried on at Stonehaven, and flax-spinning and weaving at Bervie, Laurencekirk, and a few other places. There are several breweries, tanneries, and distilleries. Fishing gives employment to a number of persons in the sea-coast villages. The rental of the salmon fishings on the coast is £7000, and of those on the rivers £1250 per annum. There is some shipping at Stonehaven.

Railways.— The Caledonian Railway traverses the county from Marykirk to the mouth of the Dee, and a branch line runs along the sea-coast as far north as Bervie.

Administration.— The county comprises eighteen parishes and three parts of parishes; one royal burgh, Bervie, which received its constitution from David II. in return for the hospitality of the inhabitants when he landed there through stress of weather; and one burgh of barony, Stonehaven, which, since 1600, has been the capital of the county, the former capital, Kincardine, in the parish of Fordouu, at which there was at one time a royal castle, having now declined to the position of a mere hamlet. The county is now joined to the sheriffdom of Aberdeen, weekly courts being held at Stonehaven. One member of parliament is returned for the county, and Bervie is united with the Montrose district of burghs, which returns one member.

Population.— The population between 1801 and 1851 increased from 26,349 to 34,598. In 1871 it was 34,466, and in 1881 it was 34,460, of whom 16,972 were males and 17,488 females. The population of Stonehaven in 1871 was 3396, and in 1881 it was 3948. Laurencekirk in 1881 had a population of 1454, Johns-haven 1039, and Bervie 1094.

History and Antiquities.— Anciently Kincardine belonged to the district of Picta via. Cairns and stone circles are frequent in nearly every part of the shire, and there are numerous traces of Roman camps. According to some the county received the name Mearas from having been granted to Merfiia, a Scottish king, brother of the Angus who received the neighbouring county of Forfar. The only old building of special interest is Dunnottar Castle near Stonehaven, the old seat of the Keiths, earl marischals of Scotland. The castle stands on a high projecting rock about 150 feet above the sea, by which it is nearly surrounded, and was formerly an extensive fortress of great strength. In the reign of James II. it was used as a prison for Nonconformists. Among the eminent persons connected with Kincardine may be mentioned John of Fordoun the historian, George Wishart, Robert Barclay the Quaker, Bishop Burnet, Dr John Arbuthnott, Dr James Beattie, Dr Thomas Reid, and Lord Monboddo.

See the History and Traditions of the Lands of the Lindsays, 1853; History and Antiquities of the Hearns, 1858; and Memorials of Angus and the Hearns, 1861,—all by A. Jervise.

According to the development theory all education must be based on study of the nature to be developed. Froebel’s study of the nature of children showed him that their great characteristic was restlessness. This was, first, restlessness of body, delight in mere motion of the limbs; and, secondly, restlessness of mind, a constant curiosity about whatever came within the range of the senses, and especially a desire to examine with the hand every unknown object within reach. Children’s fondness for using their hands was specially noted by Froebel, and he found that they delighted, not merely in examining by touch, but also in altering whatever they could alter, and further that they endeavoured to imitate known forms whether by drawing or by modelling in putty or clay. Besides remarking in them these various activities, he saw that children were sociable and needed the sympathy of companions. There was, too, in them a growing moral nature, passions, affections, and conscience, which needed to be controlled, responded to, cultivated. Both the restraints and the opportunities incident to a well-organized community would be beneficial to their moral nature, and prove a cure for selfishness.

Froebel held that the essence of all education was to be found in rightly directed but spontaneous action. So the children must be employed; and at that age their most natural employment is play, especially, as Wordsworth has pointed out, games in which they imitate and “con the parts” they themselves will have to fill in after years. Froebel agreed with Montaigne that the games of children were “their most serious occupations,” and with Locke that “all the plays and diversions of children should be directed towards good and useful habits, or else they will introduce ill ones” {Thoughts concerning Education, § 130). So he invented a course of occupations, most of which are social games. Many of the games are connected with the “gifts,” as he called the series of simple playthings provided for the children, the first being the ball, “the type of unity.” The “gifts” are chiefly not mere playthings but materials which the children work up in their own way, thus gaining scope for their power of doing and inventing and creating. The artistic faculty was much thought of by Froebel, and, as in the education of the ancients, the sense of rhythm in sound and motion was cultivated by music and poetry introduced in the games. Much care was to be given to the training of the senses, especially those of sight, sound, and touch. Intuition or first-hand experience (Anschauung) was to be recognized as the true basis of knowledge, and though stories were to be told, and there was to be much intercourse in the way of social chat, instruction of the imparting and “learning-up” kind was to be excluded. Froebel sought to teach the children not what to think but how to think, in this following in the steps of Pestalozzi, who had done for the child what Bacon nearly two hundred years before had done for the philosopher. Where possible the children were to be much in the open air, and were each to cultivate a little garden.

To judge by. all appearances at the present date (1881), the kindergarten will be an important institution in the education of the future. The first kindergarten was opened at Blankenburg, near Rudolstadt, in 1840, but after a needy existence of eight years was closed for want of funds. In 1851 the Prussian Government declared that “schools founded on Froebel’s principles or principles like them could not be allowed.” But the idea had far too much vitality to be starved or frowned down. Although its progress has not been rapid, it has been constant. As early as 1854 it was introduced into England by the then famous Ronges, and Henry Barnard reported on it that is was ‘ ‘ by far the most original, attractive, and philosophical form of infant development the world has yet seen” (Report to Governor of Connecticut, 1854). But the attempt failed, and though there are now a Froebel Society, an institution for training young women to conduct kindergartens, and also some good kindergartens, Froebel’s idea has hardly yet found a home in Britain. The great propagandist of Froebelism, the Baroness Marenholtz-Bülow, drew the attention of the French to the kindergarten from the year 1855, and Michelet declared that Froebel had “solved the problem of human education.” In the department of the Seine the “Salles d’asile” now consist of a class for children from two to four years old, and a “Froebel class” of children from four to six. In Italy the kindergarten has been introduced by Madame Salis-Schwabe, and is used in the education of the poor. In Austria it is recognized and regulated by the government, though the Volks-Kindergiirten are not numerous. But by far the greatest developments of the kindergarten system are in the United States and in Belgium. Dr William T. Harris, assisted by Miss Blow, tried the experiment of making the kindergarten a part of the public education in St Louis eight years ago, and there are now no less than 8000 children, all over five years of age, in the St Louis public kindergartens. In Belgium the mistresses of the “Écoles gardiennes” have for some time been instructed in the “idea of the kindergarten” and “Froebel’s method,” and in 1880 the minister of public instruction, Van Humbeeck, issued a programme for the “Écoles Gardiennes Communales,” which is both in fact and in profession a kindergarten manual. This programme attributes the improvement in infant schools to “le souffle puissant de Froebel”; and, after explaining that the method to be adopted is based on the laws which govern the development of the child, the minister continues: “In its great principles as well as in its main applications this method is that created by the genius of Froebel.” This estimate of Froebel’s principles contrasts strangely with the Prussian minister’s thirty years earlier.

Literature.—Henry Barnard’s volume, Froebel" s Kindergarten, Hartford, U.S.A., 1881, contains a large collection of papers on the subject, original and translated; W. T. Harris's Reports give full accounts of the adaptation of the Kindergarten to public education at St Louis. Kindergartens in Germany are described in Joseph Payne’s Visit to German Schools, 1876. Practical guides published in England are J. and B. Ronge’s, 3d ed., 1855; E. wiebe’s Paradise of Children; and Miss Lyschinska's, 1880. Other literature is cited in Steiger’s Cyclopaedia of Education; and in L. waiter’s Die Fröbelliteratur, 1881. (R, H. Q.) '