For learning to swim, a quiet sandy beach is the best place, as sea water is more buoyant than fresh. All artificial aids, such as corks, air belts, cork jackets, inflated bladders, and the like, may be avoided; they raise some parts of the body too high above and so sink others too far below the natural plane of flotation, whereas the first fundamental rule is that the mouth only should be above water, and the legs close to the surface. Belts, &c., are also apt to become misplaced and so cause trouble and annoyance as well as danger. It is best for beginners to take some instruction from a practical teacher, though many have become adepts by merely watching good performers. Confidence in the floating power of the body is the first thing to be acquired. The easiest way of floating is to lie on the back (which should be slightly hollowed), the arms being stretched out beyond the head but not lifted out of the water; this attitude not only facilitates respiration but counterbalances the weight of the lower limbs. The knees may be bent outward, the toes also pointing sideways, the hips rigid, so assisting to keep the legs up as close as possible to the top of the water. By easy breathing one will soon be convinced that, properly balanced and with lungs kept charged, the body will assert its buoyancy.

To further enable him to realize that water is capable of supporting the human body, the learner may adopt the following plan. Walk down the steps of a bath, or along a shelving beach on a calm day, into about 3 feet of water; turn and face the shallow place, and, having taken a breath, stoop down and try to pick an egg or some similar object (a handful of sand will suffice) from the bottom. Repeat this several times leisurely, going farther out at each venture, till the water reaches up to but not higher than the middle of the chest. It will soon be found that the object is not so easy of recovery, and the beginner learns that but little exertion is required to keep the body afloat. When this experience has been gained the novice should commence with the Breast Stroke, which is nowadays some times unjustly set aside as the “old stroke.” It is neat, natural, and graceful enough, though necessarily the slowest, from the great resistance of the chest to the water and the fact that part of the arm stroke is negatived by its own movement. Like walking in pedestrianism, however, it forms the groundwork of every other branch of the art, and cannot safely be overlooked. The stroke is commenced by placing the hands with the backs upward, and the wrists bent so that the fingers will point to the front, the insides of the wrist-joints between arm and thumbs touching the breast not lower than 4 inches under water. Begin the stroke by pushing the arms gently forward to their full extent, keeping the palms flat and the fingers closed. Now turn the palms of both hands outward, and make a strong stroke to the right and left by each arm through an angle of 90°; in this part of the stroke the two arms describe a semicircle, of which the head may be termed the centre. It must be most distinctly borne in mind that all depression of the hands will tend to raise the body perpendicularly, whereas the only true position in swimming is the horizontal, which propels it forward. To complete the arm movement, bend the elbows backward and inward, until they come close to (but not necessarily touching) the sides of the body. Carry the hands in a straight line edgeways to the position from which they started in front of the chest. Simultaneously with the stretching of the hands from the front of the body the feet are struck out to the utmost width in a way cleft for them by the toes. As the arms are being brought round in the semicircular motion the lower limbs are stiffened and brought firmly together by grasping the water, so to speak, with the whole of the leg, more especially between the knees, ankles, and soles and toes of the feet. Whilst thus imparting forward motion to the swimmer, they finish in a straight line behind the body. Then, when the arms are bent, and the hands are being brought to the front of the body, the knees are turned outward, heels kept together, toes also turned out, and the feet are carried up to the body and in this position are once more ready for repeating the movements as described. Beginners must be careful not to make the arm movements quicker than those of the legs, and it must be distinctly remembered that the latter are the great propellers. Unison of the movements as mentioned, and regularity in each part of the stroke, are indispensable to perfection. All hurry and excitement must be carefully avoided, and every complete stroke and kick gone about with mechanical precision and neatness. The only part requiring strong muscular exertion being the closing of the legs after they have been spread wide apart,—the one strong propelling element,—every effort is to be made to ensure correctness and power in its performance. The arm movements should be easy and graceful, all jerkiness or suddenness of motion being carefully avoided.

Breathing should be unrestrained and natural, without gasping, sputtering, or short or sudden heavings. A safe rule is to have a full breath at every stroke, its division being regulated as follows. Blow slowly outward when the first part of the arm movement is being performed, i.e. , stretched out in front; inspire as the hands are going outward and round. Then, as the lungs are fully charged, no effort is necessary to suspend respiration while the hands are carried in to the front of the body again. This regularity of breathing is essential to pleasure, comfort, and gracefulness of action. The nostrils and air-passages should always be thoroughly cleared, the mouth cleansed, and the throat gargled before entering the water.

Swimming on the Back is a pleasant and useful branch of the art; the chief requisite for its acquirement is confidence. The tyro should begin practice in water reaching up to about the upper part of the chest, turn his back shoreward, take a long breath, and lie gently backward in the water, keeping the hands on the waist with the elbows extended outward, the chest being expanded, and the breath held. As one lies well back the feet will be lifted off the ground; they should then be spread outward as far apart as possible, in the same position as when they are opened up in breast swimming. The body and legs are thus lying extended at full length like the letter Y, the legs forming the branches or fork. Now comes the propelling part of the movement. As in the front stroke, the muscles are set, and the legs are by one strong motion brought firmly and closely together. While this is being done the toes, by a slight movement of the ankle, are turned upward, and so, as the movement is finished, the great toes, inner ankles, and inside of the whole leg meet. This motion, strongly but not jerkily executed, sends the body forward, and, when the impetus obtained is nearly— not quite—expended, the legs are bent, so that the feet are drawn close up to the trunk, with the knees outward and heels together. The stroke is renewed by spreading apart, closing again, and so on. The breath is exhaled when spreading and closing the legs, and inhaled as the feet are drawn up to the body. If greater speed is wanted, the hands can be used as sculls by carrying them outward from the body, but at the same time level with it, palms facing downward. When the arms are sufficiently extended to be in a line across from hand to hand, the wrists are turned to allow of the palms of the hands facing toward the feet, thumbs upward. Elbows, wrists, and hands are now firmly braced, and a strong pull towards the legs is made. This is the progressive motion, and should be performed just as the legs are being closed.

Another style is to bend the elbows downward, so as to allow of the hands being carried upward along the sides of the body, thumbs inward, and palms facing the bottom of the water. When the hands have been carried up to the armpits they are spread apart to the full extent of the arms, and the propelling part is performed as in the other method by pulling strongly toward the legs.

A still more powerful stroke, and one used at competitions, is accomplished by carrying the hands up to the armpits, as described in last method; then, turning the wrist so as to allow of the palms of the hands facing upward, point the fingers in the direction of progress, stretch both arms as far as possible in a line with the body and beyond the head, and turn the wrists half round, until the hands are back to back, thumbs upward. The propelling action is now performed by sweeping both hands outward and round until they touch the legs and the arms are once more straight along the sides of the body. There is a double kick in this style, and the action is as follows. When the hands are being carried up to the shoulder one kick is delivered; then as the arms are being carried beyond the head the nether limbs are drawn up in position for another kick, which is delivered as the arms are sweeping down on the stroke. This is no mere ornamental stroke, but combines in its practice grace with power, and enables the swimmer to move through the water at great speed.

Another racing back stroke is performed by lifting hands and arms out of the water at the finish of the pull downward, carrying them in the air, stretching them at full length forward beyond the head, and then dipping them into the water, executing the positive part of the stroke as in the last-described method. In this stroke there is only a single kick to each pull of the arms, the legs being drawn up as the arms are swung up in the air and closed as the arms are pulled through the water. While this movement is much practised by some experts, it is neither so graceful nor so speedy as the other, and there is much splashing, while steering is, in the case of a close race, likely to become rather erratic. Both are at the present time the fastest known methods of swimming on the backhand, with moderately good turning and pushing in a swimming bath, 100 yards should be covered in about 74 seconds, probably less.

Of treading as a branch of swimming something should be known by every one. It is the only department of the art that is at all natural; and, if treading were resorted to in cases of accidental immersion, three-fourths of the resulting deaths would be prevented. The essential condition, of course, is that the hands be kept under water. When one falls into water the legs sink and the body assumes a perpendicular position, the water splashes over the face, and, once the eyes become filled or the mouth covered, the inclination of any one unable to swim is to throw the hands up and make an effort as if to creep along on the surface. These efforts only increase the danger of the position. On becoming submerged one should keep perfectly inactive for a brief time; the head will soon rise above the surface, and at this moment one ought to beat downward with both hands alternately, never allowing them to splash or disturb the surface, the head being leaned back so as to keep only the face and nostrils clear. The back of the head and ears may be covered, but this does not matter. The motions of the hands, exactly similar to those of a dog’s forepaws when swimming and walking, are to be continued, the feet at the same time striking down— not hurriedly, nor with sudden jerky movement, but easily and gracefully, the ankles moving as if working treadles, so that the soles of the feet act as sustaining and, it may be, propelling surfaces. The movements of hands and feet may be altered by beating downward with both hands at once, or both feet at once, but in cases of accident the former action is to be recommended. Swimmers, when treading at competitions or for display, either fold their arms across their chest or hold hands and arms above the surface. In artistic swimming trials, as much as possible of the body should be shown above the surface, and bobbing up and down ought to be avoided. Treading is of much importance even to a good swimmer, as it allows him to divest himself of upper clothing, and enables him to lay hold of anything, such as a rope or line that does not quite reach the surface; it is also the most comfortable position in which one can partake of refreshment in case of a long swim, and is useful for purposes of conversation.

The Side Stroke may be said to hold in swimming a position somewhat similar to that of running in pedestrianism; as it becomes better known, the advantages of this style of aquatic progression are becoming more and more appreciated. The practice of it, however, ought not to be begun until complete proficiency has been attained in the primary stroke. Its main recommendations are apparent almost at a glance. A good average side movement will carry the swimmer a stroke in two seconds, each stroke covering a distance of fully six feet. The method is said by some to have been introduced by George Pewters about the year 1850. The body is turned on either side, but preferably with the right side downward, as thereby the legs act more freely and naturally and the heart has no weight on it to impede its action. The head is more immersed and thereby reduced in weight, being supported by the water and not by any muscular exertion of the neck or shoulder, and the lower extremities are less immersed than in the breast stroke. If one is lying on the right side, the right arm is thrown boldly out in front, with the palm of the hand downward and on a level with the lower side of the head. When pushed out to the utmost it is kept rigid, brought downward through the water in one strong movement, without any bending of either wrist or elbow, and this, the positive action, is finished when the hand has reached the legs, and comes between these limbs at full stretch. It is then carried up along the body to the chin, and the stroke renewed. The left hand is formed into a scoop, turned outward by the wrist at right angles to the fore-arm. The left arm, with the elbow bent, is then directed outward, and makes a straight pulling (not circular nor swinging) stroke to the left hip. When one arm is performing the negative the other is at the positive part of the stroke. The action of the legs should be long and vigorous, and they should never cross each other, but should work in unison with the arms and shoulders. The left knee is brought up in front of the body, with the foot in front of and at right angles to the body. Put the foot in a line with the front of the leg, and bring it round to meet the other in a line with the body. Meanwhile stretch the right or lower leg as far away as possible from the body toward the back and then bring it down to meet the other by a powerful plain stroke. The legs are then returned upward to the body, the heels touching, the knees apart, the toes of the left foot forward and of the right foot downward. To learn this graceful and useful side stroke some persons need long and steady practice; others acquire it comparatively quickly. The swimmer steers with his left or right hand and arm as the direction demands. The head and neck must be held in one position, not raised nor turned at any part of the stroke. Bearings should be taken from what can be seen in the line of vision away from and in front of the body, and only very seldom indeed should the head be turned to look in advance. Breath is inhaled as the under hand is pulling downward, and exhalation should take place while the mouth is immersed, which is when the uppermost hand is performing the stroke along the body.

The coincident movement of arms and legs may be thus described. As the legs are bent up to the body the upper or left hand has been stretched in front and the right or lower arm has just finished the pull. As the top arm pulls downward the legs are opened wide and almost in the same motion swung round and closed. It will be apparent that the legs are returned upward with knees bent as the downward pull is being performed with the lower arm. No effort is to be made to sink the head, neither is it to be held up in any way. The turn of the body by the power of the strokes will be quite enough to allow of the lips being sufficiently clear of the water for the purpose of inspiration. There should be no sudden pull at any part whatever of this complete stroke.

The Overhand Stroke, when properly practised and acquired, is the most useful and easy of all styles of swimming. Beginners, however, should beware of acquiring it before they are thorough adepts with the side stroke, otherwise they lose all power of speed and good appearance. Harry Gurr is sometimes said to have been the inventor of this stroke in 1863, but Harry Gardener, in August of the year previous, when he won the 500 yards championship in Manchester, used the overhand or over-arm stroke. The only movements of the side stroke which differ from those of the overhand are those of the left or upper arm and hand. By carrying this arm in the air a lengthened reach is obtained above the surface. As in the side stroke, the head lies as far as possible into the water, the body, legs, and feet in a straight line level with and close to the surface. The left arm is carried forward and stretched as far as possible out of the water in a line with the face and in advance of the head. The arm and hand re-enter the water, and are pulled through it with the strongest propelling stroke. The limb out of water should be carried through the air quietly, gracefully, and evenly till dipped for the stroke, not swung uselessly round from the shoulder in a half circle. The left arm and hand being in the air, the head lies deeper in the water than in the side stroke, and it is reduced in weight. The legs work simultaneously with the left arm; that is, they are drawn up as this arm reaches in front, and are at their nearest wide stretch by the time it is in position for the pull; they are then pulled strongly together as the upper arm is performing its strong movement. At no time when the upper arm is being carried forward above the water should the hand be higher than a very few (say about three) inches above the surface. The elbow alone is elevated, and is the highest part of the arm. In fact, the hand is so close to the surface that, on being lifted upward after the delivery of...