Alphonso II., surnamed “The Chaste,” King of the Asturias, the son of Fruela I., was but a child when his father was assassinated in 768, and consequently his claims to the throne were passed over in favour of Aurelio, who was probably a cousin of Fruela. Alphonso was invested with regal authority by Silo, the successor of Aurelio; on whose death, in 783, he became sole ruler. He was afterwards dethroned by his uncle Mauregato, and was compelled to retire into Biscay. Mauregato, after a reign of about five years, was succeeded by Bermudo, who, in 791, took Alphonso as his partner on the throne. Bermudo reigned for only about four years longer. A rebellion of many of the chief nobles in 802 compelled Alphonso to surrender his throne for the third time; but he was soon afterwards restored, mainly through the assistance of Theudius, one of his most faithful followers. In addition to having to defend himself against these internal dissensions, Alphonso was during the greater part of his reign at war with the Moors, obtaining, among other successes, a signal victory over Mohammed, governor of Merida, in 830. Alphonso died in 843, in the city of Oviedo, which he had greatly adorned and made the capital of his kingdom. He had some years previously abdicated in favour of Ramiro, son of Bermudo. His surname of “The Chaste” has been connected by some with the legend that he refused to pay the Moors their tribute of a hundred Spanish virgins, but is rather to be ascribed to his vow to preserve an absolute continence.

Alphonso III., surnamed “The Great,” King of the Asturias, was born in the year 848, and succeeded his father Ordoño I. in 866. In the following year, Fruela, count of Galicia, disputed Alphonso’s right of succession, and forced him to retire to Alava; but Fruela’s tyranny so exasperated the people that he was assassinated before he had been a year in power, and they gladly recalled Alphonso to the throne. Other conspiracies marked the beginning of Alphonso’s reign, but he soon felt himself tolerably secure at home, and turned his arms against the Moors. By 901, the year in which he gained a splendid victory at Zamora, he had, it is said, extended his empire to the banks of the Guadiana, and had, by founding and fortifying cities, made good his hold over a large part of the conquered territory. But Alphonso’s victories abroad were greatly neutralised by discontent among his own subjects, who found it difficult to bear the heavy war taxes that had been imposed upon them. There was a rising under Ano in 885, and another under Witiza in 894; and in 907 a more formidable insurrection broke out, headed by Garcia, the king’s eldest son. Garcia was defeated and taken prisoner; but as the greater part of the nation sided with the queen in demanding that he should be released, Alphonso, either wishing to prevent a civil war, or thinking that his cause was hopeless, resigned his crown to his son in 901. After his abdication, Alphonso, offering his services to his son in the true spirit of the age, led an expedition against the Moors, in which he gained fresh victories. He died towards the end of the same year (901). He was the last monarch who bore the title King of Asturias, his successors being called kings of Leon, from the new capital of the kingdom. It was in his reign that the counts of Navarre became independent. There is still extant a Latin chronicle, treating of the history of Spain from the Moorish invasion down to the death of Ordoño, which is usually attributed to Alphonso.

Alphonso IV., “The Monk,” King of Leon, succeeded Fruela II., his uncle in 924. On the death of his wife, about six years afterwards, he resigned his crown to his brother Ramiro, and retired into a cloister; but soon growing weary of monastic life, he made an attempt to resume the sceptre. He was, however, taken prisoner at Leon, and confined in the monastery of St Julien, where he died, probably about two and a half years after.

Alphonso V. succeeded his father Bermudo II. in 999, being then about five years of age. Gonsalez, count of Galicia, and his wife, were, by appointment of Bermudo II., guardians of the young king; and on arriving at manhood he married their daughter Elvira. The regency is remarkable for the defeat and death of the famous Moor Almansur in 1002—a success that led ultimately to the conquest of Cordova by the Christians. Alphonso himself made war upon the Moors, recapturing Leon and other places that had been lost during his minority. Alphonso died at the siege of Viseo in 1028. He was succeeded in the kingdom of Leon by his son Bermudo III., while the hitherto dependent countship of Castile became a separate kingdom under the sovereignty of Sancho el Mayor, king of Navarre, and husband of the eldest daughter of the late count.

Alphonso VI. of Leon, and eventually I. of Castile, surnamed “The Valiant,” was born in the year 1030. His father, Fernando the Great, who in his own right was king of Castile only, but succeeded to the throne of Leon in right of his wife, died in 1065, leaving his kingdom divided among his children. Sancho, the eldest son, received as his portion Castile; to Alphonso was given the kingdom of Leon, the territory of Campos, part of Asturias, and some towns in Galicia; and Garcia the youngest brother, received a part of Galicia and of Portugal; while the towns of Toro and Zamora were left to Urraca and Elvira, Fernando’s two daughters. Peace was not long maintained between the three brothers. In 1068 Sancho made war upon Alphonso, and defeated him in a bloody battle at Piantica, on the Pisuerga. In 1071, hostilities, which seem to have been suspended, again commenced, and Alphonso having recruited his army, defeated Sancho at a place called Valpellage, on the banks of the Carrion; but the latter, being reinforced, it is said by the famous Roderigo Diaz de Bivar, commonly called “The Cid,” made an attack during the night, and almost exterminated the Leonnese army, Alphonso himself being taken prisoner. He was compelled to abdicate his throne, and was imprisoned in the monastery of Sahagun, probably with the intention of making him become a monk; but escaping from this place of confinement, he sought refuge with Almamun, the Moorish king of Toledo, who received him with great hospitality. Sancho having taken possession of Leon, advanced into Galicia against Garcia. The two brothers met at Santarem, when the Galicians were defeated with great slaughter, and Garcia himself captured and thrown into prison. Sancho was assassinated in 1073, and Alphonso, after making a solemn declaration that ho was guiltless of his brother’s death, was reinstated in his own dominion, besides receiving his brother’s kingdom of Castile. Garcia, who had been liberated on the death of his brother, was preparing to recover his throne, when Alphonso, having treacherously invited him to his court, shut him up in the castle of Luna, where he died ten years afterwards. Being now the undisputed master of nearly all his father’s kingdom, Alphonso was at liberty to turn his arms against the Moors. His first expedition, in 1074, was in defence of Almamun of Toledo, who had befriended him in his adversity, and whose kingdom was now invaded by the Cordovans. Some years later, however, disregarding the ties of gratitude, he himself laid waste the territories of Yahia ben Ismail, the son and successor of Almamun, and ended by taking the city of Toledo itself in 1085. Many parts of Spain, hitherto subject to the Moors, were now added to the empire of Alphonso; and it is not improbable that he would have reduced the entire peninsula to his sway, had not a new and formidable power arisen, which threatened to undo all he and his predecessors had accomplished. A large army of Moors from Africa, under Yussef ben Tashfyn, one of the Almoravides, entered Spain, and, with the assistance of Ben Abad, king of Seville, inflicted a terrible defeat upon Alphonso near Zalaca, in the year 1086. Fortunately for the Christian cause, the Moorish chiefs began to quarrel among themselves, and Alphonso was enabled not only to recover his position, but even to extend his conquests in some directions. In 1108, however, the Almoravides made another serious attempt to destroy the power of Alphonso. A bloody battle was fought at Uclès, in which the Leonnese army was completely defeated, and Sancho, Alphonso’s only son, who commanded in place of his father, slain. Alphonso died at Toledo in 1109, and was succeeded by his daughter Urraca, whose husband, Alphonso I. of Aragon, is by some historians enumerated among the kings of Leon as Alphonso VII. Through his illegitimate daughter Teresa, whom he gave in marriage to Henry of Burgundy, Alphonso became an ancestor of the kings of Portugal.

Alphonso VII., the same as Alphonso I. of Aragon (q.v.) Alphonso VIII. of Leon (or VII., according to those who do not consider Alphonso of Aragon as properly a king of Leon) and II. (or III.) of Castile, often called Alphonso Raymond and “The Emperor,” was born in the year 1106. He was the son of Urraca, daughter of Alphonso VI., and Raymond of Burgundy, her first husband. In 1112 he was proclaimed king of Galicia, by whom it does not clearly appear; in 1122 he was associated with his mother in the government of Leon and Castile; and on her death in 1126 he became sole monarch. Soon after this event he made war upon his stepfather, Alphonso of Aragon, in order to recover the territories, properly belonging to Leon and Castile, which had been lost owing to his mother’s misgovernment. The two kings came to an agreement about the year 1129, Alphonso of Leon having regained most of his possessions. In 1135, Alphonso, elated by the homage of the king of Navarre and the counts of Barcelona and Toulouse, caused himself to be solemnly crowned emperor of Spain. This dignity was, however, little more than a name, for Alphonso Henriquez of Portugal and Garcia Ramiro of Navarre declared war upon the new emperor almost immediately after his elevation. Intestine feuds between the various Christian princes of Spain, which resulted in no very definite gain to any of them, lasted until the advance of large Moorish armies under the Almohades compelled the Christians to turn against their common foe. Alphonso invaded Andalusia in 1150, and gained several victories, which contributed greatly to the extension of Christian territory in Spain. He died in 1157 at Tremada, on his return from an indecisive battle with Cid Yussef at Jaen; and was succeeded by his elder son, Sancho, in the throne of Castile, and by his younger, Fernando, in that of Leon. In 1156 he instituted the order of St Julien, afterwards so celebrated under the name Alcantara (q.v.) Alpπonso IX. (VIII.), King of Leon only, succeeded his father Fernando in 1188. In 1190 he sought to strengthen his position by marrying his cousin Teresa of Portugal. This marriage, being within the forbidden degrees, was pronounced null by the pope (Celestine III.), who excommunicated Alphonso and his queen until 1195, when they agreed to separate. In 1197 Alphonso a second time defied the papal authority by marrying his cousin Berengaria, daughter of Alphonso III. of Castile, with a view of putting a stop to the frequent quarrels between the two kingdoms. As before, the pope (Innocent III.) prevailed, and in 1204 the separation took place, Innocent, however, granting that the children already born should be recognised as legitimate. After the dissolution of the marriage the old chronic state of feud between the two kings returned, and was kept up, although with little actual warfare, until the death of Alphonso of Castile in 1214. In 1217, Fernando, the eldest son of Alphonso and Berengaria, became king of Castile. Alphonso, thinking that his own claims had been unjustly passed over, declared war upon his son; but finding that the people preferred Fernando, he relinquished his claims. The remainder of Alphonso’s reign was chiefly spent in campaigns against the Moors. Along with his son, he captured Merida, Badajoz, and other cities; and in 1230 gained a brilliant victory over Mohammed Ibn Hud at Merida. He died in the same year, and was succeeded by his son Fernando, who thus finally united the kingdoms of Leon and Castile.

Alphonso X., surnamed El Sabio, or “The Wise,” King of Leon and Castile, was born in 1221, and succeeded his father Fernando III. in 1252. He ascended the throne with the entire approbation of his subjects, and with every prospect of a happy reign; but, through the ill-directed aims of his ambition, few sovereigns have been more unfortunate. He first attempted to gain possession of Gascony, contending that he had a better right to that province than Henry III. of England. The arms of England, however, proved too formidable; and he agreed to renounce his claim on condition that Henry’s son, afterwards Edward I., should marry his sister Eleonora. The marriage was solemnised with great pomp and magnificence towards the end of October 1254. Alphonso’s next act was to lay claim to the duchy of Swabia, which he believed to be his in right of his mother Beatrix, daughter of the late duke. This claim was passed over, but when advancing it Alphonso formed a connection with the German princes, and in 1256 became a competitor, against Richard, Earl of Cornwall, for the imperial crown. He was again unsuccessful, the Earl of Cornwall being elected by a small majority. In 1271, on the death of Richard, he a second time attempted to make himself emperor of Germany, and even after Rodolph of Hapsburg had actually been elected, he undertook a fruitless journey to Beaucaire in order to prevent the pope (Gregory X.) from confirming the election. These repeated attempts to increase his dignity weakened rather than strengthened the power of Alphonso, and forced him to impose heavy taxes upon his subjects, and even to debase the coinage, thus producing much discontent and disturbance, while the Moors were ever ready to take advantage of any misfortunes that might happen to him. From 1261 to 1266 he was engaged in a war with Mohammed of Granada, during which his army suffered several defeats. In 1270 an insurrection broke out, headed by Felipe, brother of the king, who was assisted by Mohammed of Granada; it was only quelled after nearly, all their demands had been conceded to the rebels. In 1275, when Alphonso was absent on his fruitless journey to Beaucaire, his eldest son, Fernando de la Cerda, died, an event which, raising as it did the question of the succession to the crown, threatened anew to involve the kingdom in war. Sancho, Alphonso’s second son, was, according to the law of the Visigoths, proclaimed heir by the Cortes at Segovia; but Philip of France, uncle of the two young sons of Fernando, declared war with Alphonso on their behalf; actual hostilities were, however, prevented by the intercession of Pope Nicolas III. In 1281, Sancho, irritated probably by some attempt that Alphonso had made to favour the sons of Fernando, raised the standard of revolt against his father. Sancho, who was a favourite with the people, having secured the assistance of Mohammed of Granada, reduced his father to such extremities that the latter solemnly cursed and disinherited his son, an act which he confirmed by his will in 1283, and at the same time solicited aid from the king of Marocco. At the commencement of the following year, however, Alphonso, on receiving intelligence from Salamanca that Sancho was dangerously ill, pardoned him. Alphonso died a few days afterwards, on 4th April 1284. He was a learned prince, and a great encourager of learning, brave and energetic, but at the same time restless and ambitious. He has been charged with impiety, chiefly on account of a well-known saying of his, that “had he been present at the creation, he could have given some useful hints for the better ordering of the universe.” To him science is indebted for a set of astronomical observations known as the Alphonsine Tables, which were drawn up under his auspices by the best astronomers of the age; and in the palace of Segovia a room is still shown as the observatory of Alphonso. He was also distinguished as a poet and as a legislator. In the Escurial is preserved a curious manuscript containing some hymns of his composition; and he was the principal compiler of a code of laws which is still extant under the name of Las Siete Partidas. Alphonso XI., “The Avenger,” was an infant when he succeeded his father, Ferdinand IV., in 1312. During his long minority the kingdom was cruelly distracted by intestine warfare. Assuming the reins of government in 1324, he strove to repress the turbulent spirit of the nobility, and to put down that system of brigandage to which it had given rise, acquiring by his inflexible severity the title of “The Avenger.” He lost Gibraltar in 1329, but as commander of the allied armies of Catholic Spain, on the 29th Oct. 1340 he gained a complete victory over the kings of Morocco and. Granada at the Salado. The slaughter was immense, and the booty so rich that the value of gold is said to have fallen one-sixteenth. In 1342 Alphonso laid siege to Algeciras, where cannon were employed for the first time in Europe by the Moors in defence of their walls. This siege had lasted two years, when the Moors capitulated on condition of a truce between the two nations for ten years; but the king of Castile broke his word a few years after by besieging Gibraltar, where he died of the plague on the 26th March 1350, aged 40. He was succeeded by his son, Pedro the Cruel. From this reign dates the institution of regidors or jurats, to whom was committed the administration of the communes; and these regidors became the exclusive electors of the Cortes, in which the people ceased to have a voice.

2 d , Castile.— Alphonso III. (according to other enumerations, VIII. or IX.), surnamed “The Noble,” is the only king of Castile of the name who was not also king of Leon. He was born in 1155, and succeeded his father, Sancho III., in 1158. His minority was disturbed by the contention of the two powerful houses of Lara and Castro for the regency; but after his marriage with Eleanor, daughter of Henry II. of England, he was proclaimed sole rider. After compelling the kings of Aragon, Navarre, and Leon to surrender the territories they had taken possession of during his minority, he turned his arms against the Moors, and at Alarcos, in 1195, sustained one of the most terrible defeats recorded in the annals of Spain. This disaster encouraged the kings of Leon and Navarre to renew their hostilities, which were carried on for several years with varying success. In 1211 the Moors again threatened Castile; but in the following year, Alphonso, along with Pedro II. of Aragon and Sancho VII. of Navarre, gained a most complete and splendid victory over them at La Navas de Tolosa. Alphonso died at Garci Muños in 1214, and was succeeded by his son, Enrique I. Alphonso was a patron of literature, and in 1208 founded a university at Palencia, the first in Christian Spain. This university was afterwards transferred to Salamanca.

3 d , Aragon.— Alphonso I., surnamed El Batallador, “The Fighter,” King of Navarre and Aragon, was the second son of Don Sancho Ramirez, and succeeded his brother Pedro I. in 1104. By his marriage in 1109 with Urraca, daughter and heiress of Alphonso VI. of Leon and Castile, he...