The first discovery of the coast of Lower California was made in 1534, by an expedition sent out by Cortez, and consisting of two ships, commanded by Bezerra de Mendoza, and Hernando de Grijalva; and later, the gulf now known as the Gulf of California was discovered and navigated by Cortez himself; after whom it was for a time called El Mar de Cortez, and later El Mar Vermejo (the Red or Vermilion Sea), in consequence of the red colour which it has at times, and which is probably due to the multitudes of small animalculae (crustaceans 1) inhabiting its waters. In 1540 the mouth of the Colorado River was discovered by Alarcon, in command of a fleet sent out by Mendoza for geographical exploration In 1542 the coast of California proper was explored by Cabrillo as far north as Cape Mendocino, in latitude 44° In 1578 Sir Francis Drake entered the Pacific, and coasted along the shores of the American continent, reaching a point as far north as 48°. Whether he discovered the bay and harbour of San Francisco has been and still is a matter of dispute. By some he is supposed to have tarried and refitted his ships at what is now known as Sir Francis Drake’s Bay; by others he is believed to have done this in the Bay of San Francisco itself. The evidence seems to decidedly preponderate in favour of the first of these suppositions. In 1602 the bays of San Diego and Monterey were discovered by Viscaino; but more than a hundred and fifty years elapsed before the latter was visited again, and before settlements began to be made on the coast of Upper California. The peninsula (Lower California) was entered by Jesuit missionaries in 1697, and a permanent mission established at Loreto; where, and at other points, the Jesuits maintained themselves, on the whole successfully, until 1767, when they were expelled from the country by order of Charles III. of Spain, and all their property turned over to the Franciscan monks. Later, the Dominicans obtained exclusive possession of the peninsula; and the Franciscans, not unwillingly, withdrew to Upper California, where they established themselves, built numerous missions, and throve remarkably until Mexico became independent of Spain in 1822; this event was a death-blow to the establishments of the Franciscans, which from that time forward lost ground from year to year, and finally were broken up altogether in 1840. The treatment by the fathers of the natives of the country was successful so far as the accumulation of material wealth was concerned, but not in the slightest degree conducive to their intellectual advancement or development, as the so-called converts were simply the slaves of the “good fathers.” The whole number of the mission establishments was twenty-one,—the first founded in 1769, the last in 1820. They were all on or near the coast or bay of San Francisco, and the fathers displayed most excellent judgment in selecting for their sites the very garden-spots of the country. The number of the aboriginal inhabitants of California has rapidly decreased within the past forty or fifty years. The various authorities agree in fixing their number at over 100,000 in 1823. In 1863, according to the census made by the Indian Department, there were only 29,000; the census of 1870 gave about the same results, namely, 29,025, 5784 being actually enumerated, and the remainder merely an estimate. It is certain that the decrease in the Indian population was at one time exceedingly rapid; it would appear, however, that at present it is much less so. The few that are left are mostly a degraded, miserable set of beings.

During the time of the flourishing of the missions of California, the connection of the country with Spain through Mexico was a very loose one. Gradually a trade of some importance sprang up between the Atlantic and Pacific sides of the continent. Boston had for a number of years an entire monopoly of this business, which consisted chiefly of an exchange of groceries and cotton goods for furs and hides. The voyage usually lasted two years or more, and the profits were large. A few Englishmen and Americans wandered into California from different parts of the world between 1810 and 1830; and some adventurous and daring men found their way across the continent, in the pursuit of the dangerous and exciting business of hunting and trapping. It is estimated that there were, in 1830, as many as 500 foreigners on the west side of the Sierra Nevada. Of all these early pioneers, John A. Sutter is the one who is best known, from the fact that the first effective discovery of gold, by the Americans, was made by men in his employ; and also on account of the generous hospitality with which he welcomed the first comers into Calfomia, notably Fremont and his party.

In 1842 Commodore Jones of the American navy captured the fort of Monterey, raised the stars and stripes, and took possession of the country for the United States; but the next day he hauled down his colours, and apologized for his mistake. About this time the attention of the United States Government began to be strongly attracted towards California; and, as is universally believed in that State, the French and the English were also looking in that direction, with a view to a future possible taking possession of the country All the circumstances connected with the seizing of California by the United States will probably never be known. It appears pretty clear, however, that the authorities at Washington, having determined on a war with Mexico, and fully aware of the importance to the United States of an extension of their territory on the Pacific, resolved to take possession of California, so that after the termination of the war, matters being settled on the basis of utr possidetis, that country would become a part of the United States. At all eventa, Fremont being accidentally engaged in conducting a scientific expedition on the Pacific coast, received in May 1846, verbal instructions from an officer dispatched from Washington in a national ship, and who had crossed from Vera Cruz to Mazatlan. In consequence of these instructions, he turned back, made his way at once to Sutter’s Fort, then to Sonoma, where he organized a battalion of mounted riflemen; and on the 5th of July he called his forces together, and recommended a declaration of independence. On the 2d of the same month a United States frigate had arrived at Monterey, where, on the 7th, the commander hoisted the American flag, issuing at the same time a proclamation, in which California was declared to be, from that time forth, a portion of the United States. This was followed by some fighting with the native Californians, and much bitter discussion and dissension among the different officers of the navy and army, who were concerned in the conquest of the country. The principal result was, that Fremont, who was tried by court-martial, found guilty of mutiny, and sentenced to lose his commission, was ever afterwards considered by the people to have been the real conqueror of California; and, in consequence, he came near being elevated to the Presidency. The country was entirely pacified before June 1847; and in March 1848 a treaty was ratified between the Governments of the United States and Mexico, by which the whole of Upper California was ceded to the United States, just at the moment when the discovery of gold on the American River was beginning to attract attention; and when the news of the ratification reached the Pacific coast, the excitement had already spread far and wide; San Francisco was deserted, and the whole population of the country was at work in the mountains, digging gold. The discussion as to what should be done with California, when acquired, began in Congress in 1846; and the question of slavery or no slavery in the new territory was at once raised. A most furious conflict followed, and nothing was accomplished during that session or the next; even as late as the adjournment of Congress, on the 4th of March 1849, the only progress made towards creating a Government for the new territory, was that the United States revenue laws had been extended over it, and San Francisco made a port of entry. In consequence of this the people themselves got together in September 1849, and a constitution was framed forbidding slavery, and in other respects resembling the constitutions of the free American States On the 7th of September 1850, a bill finally passed Congress, admitting California into the Union as a State, and without slavery, but leaving New Mexico and Utah open to its introduction. At the same time the celebrated “Compromise Measures” became a law and these were supposed to have settled the question of slavery for ever in the republic; the lapse of a few years proved, however, that this was a problem which admitted of no peaceful solution. By the treaty with Mexico, the United States did not acquire the Peninsula of Lower California, although they had military possession of it at that time. It was probably known to the authorities at Washington that it was a region of little value, as compared with the country to the north of it, or California proper.

Lower California. —Under this designation is comprised the whole peninsula, and it extends from Cape St Lucas to the boundary between the United States and Mexico, which is a line “drawn from the middle of the Rio Gila, where it unites with the Colorado, to a point on the coast of the Pacific one marine league due south of the southernmost point of the port of San Diego.” The breadth of the peninsula varies very much, it being from five to six times as great between the parallels of 27° and 28° as it is opposite the Bay of La Paz. The area of Lower California has been estimated as 58,000 square miles; the recent charts of the American Hydrographic Office, based on original surveys, make the peninsula narrower than it was formerly believed to be, and its area has not been computed since these surveys were made; it will probably not exceed 50,000 square miles.

The interior of Lower California is chiefly known to us, as to its physical and geological structure, from a reconnaissance made by Messrs Gabb and Loehr, of the State Geological Survey of California, in 1867. This exploration was set on foot in order that some information might be obtained relative to the value of a concession made by the Mexican Government to an American company. This grant was expected to lead to a settlement of the country, but the whole thing turned out a failure.

According to Mr Gabb, the peninsula is divided into three distinct portions. The northern and southern extremities have much in common with each other, while the middle division differs decidedly from the others in its physical characters. The most southern division consists chiefly of granitic rocks and high ranges, which with their spurs cover nearly the whole area from Cape St Lucas to La Paz. Within this district, and lying between the spurs of the mountains, are many small valleys, some of which are very fertile, and well supplied with water. According to the American hydrographic charts, there are in this part of the peninsula two well-defined ranges, and the culminating point is given as 6300 feet in altitude. It is in this region, about half-way from Cape St Lucas to La Paz, that the principal mines of the peninsula are situated; and these are the only ones which, thus far, have proved to be of much value. They are in the districts of San Antonio and Triunfo. In 1867 these mines were producing at the rate of about $20,000 in value of silver per month; and, from recent newspaper notices, it would appear that they are still worked with success. The ores are, however, refractory, and not easily treated.

Proceeding northwardly into the middle section of the peninsula, the granitic masses unite and form one mountain range, which runs parallel with the coast of the gulf, and at a distance of fifteen or twenty miles from it. It is known as the Sierra Gigantea, or del Gigante, and has an elevation of from 3000 to 4000 feet. Crossing this range and descending its western slope, its inclination is found to be very gradual, the granitic mass being flanked on that side by heavy accumulations of sandstone, which has a gentle dip away from the crest of the ridge. This sandstone is quite destitute of fossils, but is believed by Mr Gabb to be of Miocene age. It is cut by numerous volcanic dykes, and also contains great quantities of material of eruptive origin, in the form of intefstratified masses. In this portion of the peninsula the settlements are confined to the eastern base of the Sierra Gigantea. Here, at numerous points along the coast, there are small valleys, with good harbours adjacent; and these little patches of country are very fertile and adapted to the growth of tropical and semitropical plants. By far the greater portion of the region, however, is extremely barren and forbidding; although occasional deep ravines and narrow valleys offer a marked contrast to the general sterility of the rest of the country. The northern division of the peninsula is considerably broken by mountain ranges, resembling in this respect the southern extremity. The culminating point is put down on the American hydrographic charts at 9130 feet in altitude, and it is called Mount Calamahue. Between the ranges are broad valleys, covered with grass, and said to possess some agricultural value, although as yet almost entirely unoccupied.

The dryness of the climate is the characteristic feature of the peninsula of Lower California; and although there are no reliable statistics of the rainfall it is undoubtedly very small. It is, indeed, very irregular, there being long periods of absolute dryness, in certain regions at least. The yearly average fall over the whole peninsula, for a long period of years, would perhaps not exceed three or four inches. As in the drier portion of Upper California, so here, when the rain does fall, it occasionally comes down in almost destructive quantity, over a very limited area, in the form of what are popularly known as “cloud-bursts.”

Owing to the dryness of the climate in part, and also to the character of the Mexican Government, all the numerous attempts which have been made to settle Lower California have proved failures. The population at present is estimated at from 8000 to 15,000, about two-thirds of whom live near the southern extremity of the peninsula. The harbours on both coasts are numerous, and that of Magdalena Bay is hardly inferior in extent and availability to the Bay of San Francisco itself. Whale-fishing on the west coast, and especially about Sebastian Viscaino Bay, was, a few years ago, carried on very extensively. In the winter of 1848 there were fifty American ships anchored in the bay and lagoons of Magdalena, chiefly engaged in capturing the “California Grey” whale (Rhachianectes glaucus, Cope). The pearl-fisheries of Lower California have also for many years been of some importance; they are conducted by companies, and the divers are chiefly Yaqui Indians. The total value of the pearls obtained, within the last century and a half, has been estimated at five or six millions of dollars; but this, of course, can hardly be considered as being anything more than a rough approximation. On the whole, the prospects of Lower California are not very cheering; dryness and sterility are the dominating features of a very large portion of the country. The emigration schemes have all failed, and not without considerable suffering to the unfortunate people who from time to time have been deluded into the belief that the peninsula was a rich and fertile region. The attempts at mining for copper, which have been made at various points north of Triunfo, have all proved unsuccessful.

The State of California. Area. — This is what is now always meant when the word “California” alone is used. It is in part the equivalent of the “Upper California” (Alta California) of the Spanish,—the present state of Nevada, and also the territories of Arizona and Utah, as well as parts of Wyoming and New Mexico, having been also included under that somewhat vague designation. California extends from the boundary already defined on the south to the parallel of 42°, which is the dividing line between this State and Oregon. On the east, the 120th meridian forms the boundary from 42° south to the intersection of that meridian with the 39th parallel, which takes place within the waters of Lake Tahoe, near its southern end. From this point the boundary runs obliquely in a south-easterly direction to the intersection of the 35th parallel with the Colorado River, and thence down the river to the Mexican boundary line opposite the mouth of the Gila. The whole area thus embraced has been variously estimated at from 155,000 to 188,981 square miles. The last-mentioned figures are those given in the latest document published in connection with the United States census,—General Walker’s Statistical Atlas, —as well as in the Report of the Commissioner of the United States General Land Office for 1866. It is believed, however, that the first-named figures are much nearer the truth than the other higher statement, and that the area of California is somewhere between 155,000 and 160,000 square miles.

Topography. — The surface and climate of California, although extremely varied in character, bear everywhere a peculiar impress, very different from that of the Atlantic coast and Mississippi Valley States. The division of the year into two seasons—the wet and the dry—marks this portion of the Pacific coast in the most decided manner, and this natural climatic area coincides almost exactly in its extension with that of the State of California itself. Soon after crossing the Oregon line, we enter a region of summer and winter rains; and, in Lower California, although the entire precipitation is exceedingly small, it is, on the whole, decidedly tropical in its character.

Before, however, the nature of the Californian climate can be understood, it will be necessary to give some account of the physical structure of the State, and to indicate the interesting and somewhat peculiar character of the relief of its surface. California may be divided into three quite distinct portions, and these are very different from each other in importance,—the central being much the most densely populated, and in every respect the most valuable. This central portion is embraced between the parallels of 35° and 40°, and has, on its eastern side, the Sierra Nevada, and on its western the Coast Ranges, with the Pacific Ocean at their western base. Between these two mountain chains lies the Great Central Valley, which forms so marked a feature in the topography of the state. This valley is drained by the Sacramento River, flowing from the north, and the San Joaquin from the south, the two uniting about midway between the northern and southern extremities of the valley, and entering the Bay of San Francisco through Suisun and San Pablo bays, which latter is, in fact, but the northern expansion of San Francisco Bay itself. Suisun Bay, on the other hand, is rather the partly submerged delta of the united rivers, being shallow, and containing large, low islands covered with a dense growth of “tule” (Scirpus palustris). The entire length of the...