The whole of the south coast, from Hornafjöröur in the south-east to Reykjanes in the south-west, is entirely unbroken by bays or firths. If such ever existed, they have been filled up by the glaciers and the sand and mud carried down from the volcanic ice-mountains situated close to the south coast. The coast-line is not, however, a straight line, but a broad arch, as the land swells out in the middle southwards to a considerable extent. On the north of Reykjanes a broad bay called Faxafléi (Faxi’s Bay) cuts into the land; it is bounded on the north side by Snaefellsnes, and has an area of 54 miles by 30 On the north side of Snaefellsnes the long Breiöifjöröur (Broadfirth) nearly cuts off the north-west peninsula from the rest of the island; it is 80 miles long and 40 broad. The Breiöifjöröur is noted for its great number of small islands, most of them inhabited, and all of them affording breeding places for the eider duck. To the north of the Breiöifjöröur, innumerable bays cut into the peninsula at every turn, giving it somewhat the look of the outstretched hand of a man; the longest of these is ÎsafjarÔardjùp (Icefirthdeep), 45 miles long. On the north side of the island, between Horn (Cape North) on the west and Melrakkaslétta (Fox Plain) on the east, there are several large firths. Furthest to the west is Hûnaflôi (Bearcubs’ Bay), about 60 miles long, which nearly meets the Breiöifjöröur running in from the west; the tongue of land which separates them and connects the north-west peninsula with the rest of the island is hardly 5 miles broad. The other firths on the north side are Skagafjöröur, Eyafjöröur (Firth of the Isles) 36 miles long, Skjälfandafjöröur, and Axarfjöröur (Axefirth). The Melrakkaslétta is separated from Langanes, the north-east point of Iceland, by the pistilfjöröur (Thistlefirth). The whole of the east coast of the island is indented by numerous narrow firths like those found in the north-west peninsula, but none of them are of any great length. Sailing round the island from point to point, the distance is 900 miles, but if we follow the coast-line it is not less than 2000 miles.

The centre of the island is a table-land, or rather a broad flattened ridge, sloping down to the north and the south, the average height of which above the level of the sea is about 2000 feet. It consists of arid sands and rugged tracts of lava, the most important of which bear the names of ÔdâÔahraun (the Lava of Evil Deeds), Sprengisandur (Bursting Sand), and Stérisandur (Big Sand). This wilderness is frequently broken by high and extensive ice-hills called jökull (plur. jöklar). The ice hills rise to the greatest height in the south-east, where the most extensive ice-field in the island, called Vatnajökull, covers about 4000 square miles. The outliers of this ice-field come close down to the water, hardly leaving room for passage between them and the sea; some of these are the loftiest summits in the island, as Ôraefajôkull, which is 6466 feet high. South of the west end of the Vatnajökull, called Skaptärjökull, stretches an inhabited slope, interrupted by several small hills, and intersected by considerable streams. The eastmost part is called SiÖa; then follow Landbrot, MeÖal-land, and Alptaver. West of this the land rises again in the Myrdalsjökull and the Eyafjallajökull, the latter being 5593 feet high, and here again the mountains come close down to the sea. West of the Eyafjallajökull is the largest plain in the island, stretching westward to the mountain chain terminating in the low cape of Reykjanes, and backed on the north side by several isolated mountains, among which the far-famed Hecla is prominent; its height approaches 5000 feet. This plain consists of stretches of grass land and marshes, affording abundance of grass for pasture and haymaking.

The southern and part of the eastern coasts of Faxafléi, as far as Reykjavik, are very barren and desolate, being almost entirely rugged lava tracts; but the lower parts of the hills then begin to be clothed with grass, affording pasture for sheep, cattle, and horses. North of Reykjavik is a long and narrow firth called HvalfjörÖur (Whalefirth), and further on a shorter one called Borgarfjöröur (Burghfirth). Between the extremity of the latter and the central highlands there is a large and fertile district, consisting of grassy valleys, divided by low hills, and an extensive plain covered with marshy grasslands. This district is a fair specimen of many of the inhabited parts of Iceland. The level land, the valley bottoms along the river banks, and in many cases the slopes of the hills, are covered with grass, but the soil is too frequently boggy and marshy. The hills are partly covered with heather, and in a few places with stunted dwarf birch. Districts similar in character to Borgarfjöröur are the Dalir (Dales) on the south side of Breiöifjöröur, the Hûnavatnssÿsla on the south side of Hûnaflôi, the Skagafjöröur, the FljétsdalshéraÔ on the east side of the island, and the western half of the plain lying between Eyafjallajökull and the Reykjanes range of mountains. The north-west peninsula consists, as already stated, of narrow firths divided by high and narrow mountain ridges, seldom lower than 2000 feet. In some places the top is a thin rocky edge; in others it consists of sharp-pointed peaks, denuded of all vegetation. Even at a considerable distance the different rocky strata may be distinguished. Sometimes these hills, or rather cliffs, rise perpendicularly out of the water to a height of a couple of thousand feet, affording breeding-places to an immense number of sea-fowl. More frequently the lower parts of these razor-backed hills slope towards the firths, the stony slopes being partly covered with grass or heather. The farms are therefore found along the shores and in short valleys cutting into the hills from the ends of the firths. The east coasts of Iceland present exactly the same character as that of the north-west peninsula. From the end of Eyafjöröur a long and fertile valley, bounded on both sides by lofty mountains, runs due south into the country for about 25 miles. The north-east corner of the island, called pingeyarsysla, has good sheep pasturage, although its hills and slopes are covered with heather instead of grass to a greater extent than most other districts of the island. It will thus be seen that the inhabited parts run round the coasts, and from the end of the bays into the interior, the farms farthest inland being about 50 miles from the sea.

As the snow-line is at an altitude of from 2500 to 3000 feet, all the highest mountain-tops are cones covered with perpetual snow. Besides the ice-mountains already mentioned, there are several on the western part of the central highlands, such as Hofsjökull, Langjökull, Eiriksjökull, &c.; Snaefellsjôkull, at the point of the peninsula separating the Faxaflôi and Breiftifjöröur, reaches the height of 4713 feet. All these mountains are snow-capped. Most parts of the island are studded with hills ranging in height from 2000 to 3000 feet. The tops are usually bare and rocky, but the slopes are to some extent covered with grass and heather.

Most of the mountains of Iceland have been volcanoes, and at least twenty-five of them have been active within the historical period of the island, that is, the last 1000 years. It was observed by Mackenzie that there are two volcanic formations in the island, one consisting of flat sheets of basalt, the other of more irregular hilly accumulations of trachyte, obsidian, ashes, and other volcanic masses. The former of these, there can be little doubt, is of Tertiary age—a part of the great Miocene volcanic plateaus, which on the one hand extend southwards through the Faroe Islands and the west of Scotland to the north of Ireland, and on the other stretch northwards and westwards far into Greenland. The other volcanic masses are of recent date. Iceland has thus been the theatre of volcanic activity at two widely separated periods, though we do not yet know whether during the interval the activity was wholly dormant. Of the existing volcanic mountains the best known is Hecla, from which eighteen eruptions have been recorded; the last took place in 1845-46. The intervals between the eruptions have varied greatly; sometimes it has remained quiet for six years only, at other times for seventy-two years. As with most other volcanoes, the height of this mountain varies with the eruptions. Thus before the eruption of 1845 its height was given on Gunlaugsson’s map as 4951 feet, while Kjerulf measured the mountain in 1850, and found it to be only 4532 feet. The earliest historical eruption, that of 1104, is celebrated as the “sand-rain winter,” the second, in 1158, as the “great darkness,” from the quantity of ashes ejected. One feature of the Icelandic eruptions, not from Hecla only, but from other orifices in the island, has been the prodigious quantity of fine dust discharged and the great distance to which this material has been carried. Thus in the year 1766 a column of ashes rose out of the crater of Hecla to a height of 16,000 feet into the air. Volcanic dust from the Icelandic vents has frequently been borne by upper air currents so as to fall upon the Faroe Islands, and has even been carried in considerable quantities as far as Norway on the one side and the north of Scotland on the other. Next to Hecla, the Katla, or Kötlugjä, in Myrdalsjökull may be mentioned; its last eruption (the thirteenth known) took place in 1860. The most tremendous volcanic outbreak in Iceland was that which took place in 1783 in or near the Skaptàrjôkull, on the north-west border of the Vatnajökull. Two principal lava streams flowed from it: one of them was 50 miles in length, from 12 to 15 miles in breadth, and 100 feet deep, and the other was 40 miles in length. It has been calculated that these two streams cover an area of 420 square miles. This eruption destroyed directly or indirectly one-sixth of the inhabitants of the whole island, or one-half of all the live stock. From nearly all the outliers of the Vatnajökull eruptions now and then take place. To the north of Vatnajökull a range of volcanic centres extends as far as Myvatn. The last outbreak here took place in 1875, when fine volcanic dust was discharged in great quantity, some of it being carried as far as Norway. The sea around the coasts of Iceland has been frequently disturbed by volcanic outbreaks, especially off Cape Reykjanes.

On account of the same volcanic activity, hot springs are frequently met with throughout the island. The common name for them in Icelandic is “hverr” (cauldron). The chief of these hot springs is Geysir (Gusher). See Geysers.

The only mineral worked to any extent in Iceland is sulphur; the principal mines are those of Krisuvik and Mÿvatn. Of the Iceland spar used for polarizing optical instruments, only one mine has been worked, that of Helgusta5ir in the east of the island. Limestone is found near Reykjavik, and has been worked a few years. Ironore is found in many parts of the island, but not in paying quantities, as suitable fuel is wanting. Aluminium occurs near Cape Reykjanes, but no attempt has been made to work the mine. Coal has also been found in one place, but has not been worked. There are considerable quantities of lignite, called in Icelandic surtarbrandur, in the north-west peninsula; some successful attempts have been made to use it as fuel, but it has not been worked to any extent. Peat is found, and is used as fuel, in most parts of the island.

Iceland is rich in streams and rivers, some of them carrying a large volume of water; as, however, the fall is steep in every case, they are not navigable even by small boats. The longest are pjérsâ, running southwards from the central highlands, and Skjâlfandafljét and Jôkulsâ ά Fjöllum in the north-east, running northward. The last-named river is 113 miles in length, the other two 108 miles each. Of other rivers may be mentioned the Hvit⅛, part of which is called Olfusâ, running nearly parallel with pjérsâ, Hvïtâ in BorgarfjörÖur, Blanda running into Hûna-fléi, HéraSsvôtn in SkagafjörÖur, and Lagarfljét in the east. There are several rivers named Hvit<4 (white river), so called from their milky waters, caused by the glacial •mixtures carried down from the highlands. The principal waterfalls are—Skégafoss and Seljalandsfoss, south of Eyafjallajökull, Godafoss in Skjâlfandafljét, and Dettifoss in Jôkulsâ â Fjöllum. Of the lakes pingvallavatn, about 25 miles north-east of Reykjavik, and Mÿvatn in the north-east of Iceland are the largest. The former is 25 miles in circumference, and the latter 36 miles; its waters are studded with thirty-four small islands, affording breeding-places to ∙a large number of water-fowl.

The climate of Iceland is not nearly so severe as might be supposed from the latitude. At Reykjavik the mean temperature of the year is 39° Fahr., of the summer 53° and of the winter 29° 18'. The temperature of Akureyri is 32° for the year, that of the summer 45° 5' and the winter 20° 7'. There is therefore great difference between the north and the south of the island. Another difference may also be noticed; while the climate of the south is wet and variable, that of the north is dry and regular. The mean temperature of different years sometimes varies as much as 10°, and the mean temperature of the same month has been known to vary as much as 27°. One feature in the climate has been noticed by all travellers, that is, the clearness and purity of the atmosphere, rivalling that of Italy, mountains being seen distinctly at a distance of 100 miles. The rainfall is considerable in the south and the east of the island, and snow-storms and gales are frequent in winter. Thunderstorms occur mostly in winter.

No cereal is grown in Iceland, but in some places there is found a kind of wild oats (Avena αrtηαriα), called in Icelandic “melur.” Potatoes, carrots, turnips, and several kinds of cabbage have lately been cultivated with considerable success. The grasses, wild and cultivated, are of the greatest importance to the inhabitants. The only trees found are the dwarf birch, rarely higher than 12 feet, and some willow and juniper bushes. The wild flora of Iceland is small and delicate, with bright bloom, the heaths being especially admired. Wild crowberries and bilberries are the only kind of fruit found in the island.

The only wild animal in Iceland is the fox, of which both white and blue varieties occur; they are hunted for their skins, and also because they often attack the sheep. The domestic animals are the cow, the horse, the sheep, the dog, and the cat. The cows are of a small breed, resembling English shorthorns in general, and especially Alderneys. The horses are also of a small breed, the average height being twelve hands; they are hardy and enduring; many of them are never housed, and forage for themselves as best as they can throughout the winter. They are exported to Great Britain in considerable numbers, for use in the coal mines. The sheep generally are of nearly the same size as the Scotch blackfaced sheep; they are not unfrequently sβv,n with three or four horns. The genuine Iceland dog, with his pointed snout, short ears, curled tail, and short legs, has some resemblance to the Esquimaux dog and the Scotch collie. Reindeer were imported in the last century, but they fled to the mountains and became wild; they are now nearly extinct. There are said to be ninety different species of birds, fifty-four of them being water-fowl. The most remarkable of the birds of prey are the Icelandic falcon (Falco islandicus) and the eagle. The only game bird is the ptarmigan, which is brown in summer and white in winter. Of the water-fowl the eider duck is of the greatest importance on account of its valuable down; the killing of it is therefore forbidden by law. Immense numbers of gulls, puffins, and guillemots are seen near their breeding places on the small islands and on the cliffs round the coasts. The hooper, or whistling swan, is found in large numbers in Iceland. The sea round the coast teems with cod, haddock, holibut, and the basking shark; the fin-backed-whale and seals of various kinds are also met with, but in smaller numbers. In the lakes and rivers salmon and trout are caught in considerable quantities.

As no corn is grown, there is no agriculture to speak of, and only a little spade husbandry connected with the cultivation of kitchen gardens, where potatoes, turnips, and carrots are grown. The area thus under cultivation covers, according to the latest official returns, about 215 English acres throughout the island. The cultivation of the soil in Iceland can hardly indeed be said to have been attempted; such experiments, however, as have been made, have given good hope of success. Around every farmhouse is a field called “tùn,” which is but rarely enclosed or fenced. This is the only part of the land which is cultivated at all, and all that is done there is to spread dung on the top of the soil in autumn and scrape it off in spring. Even this most primitive cultivation makes the grass twenty-five to fifty per cent, better than elsewhere. The haymaking season extends from the middle of July to the 20th of September. The grass is cut with small scythes, first in the home field, and then on the uncultivated grass-lands belonging to the farms. Many of the fishermen hire themselves to the farmers during the haymaking season; and during the fishing season the farmers send their servants to the sea-coast to fish.

According to the latest official returns the cattle in the island numbered 20,378, the horses (ponies) 31,312, and the sheep 415,339. It is obvious, however, from the quantities of wool exported that the number of sheep must be at least double that stated in the returns.

The manufactures are confined to spinning, weaving, and knitting the wool of the sheep. A sort of tweed, called in Icelandic “vaftmal,” is the principal clothing of the inhabitants. The spinning of the yarn is done by the women in winter, and almost every farm has an old-fashioned loom. In the north considerable quantities of jackets and stockings are knitted and exported.

The trade with Iceland is entirely in the hands of Danish traders and a few Icelanders—who mostly reside in Copenhagen. It consists almost entirely in exchange, or barter. The principal exports of the Icelanders are cod fish, about 6,000,000 ft> annually; train oil, 9500 barrels; wool, 1,500,000 5); eider down, 7000 lb; and feathers, 20,000 lb. Ponies are now exported to Scotland,—about 2000 a year; and a few cargoes of live sheep have been sent over during the last two years. All bread stuffs have to be imported, as well as groceries, spirits, wines, and beer, tobacco, salt, building materials, and other items. Since 1854 the trade has been open to all nations; but any vessel trading with Iceland had to take out a sea pass at the cost of 2s. 3d. per ton down to 1879, when this duty was abolished. On the other hand, a trifling duty has been laid on spirits and tobacco.

There being no roads in the island, but merely tracks trodden down by the feet of the ponies, there are no carts nor carriages of any description. In the firths boats are chiefly used for conveying goods and passengers; but all inland communication and conveyance is by ponies. These hardy animals carry each a burden of about 200 lb weight, under which they walk about 25 miles a day. All travelling...