ADULTERATION, the act of debasing a pure or genuine commodity for pecuniary profit, by adding to it an inferior or spurious article, or by taking from it one or more of its constituents. The term is derived from the Latin adultero, which in its various inflections signifies to defile, to debase, to corrupt, to sophisticate, to falsify, to counterfeit, &c. The objects of adulteration are fourfold, namely, to increase the bulk or weight of the article, to improve its appearance, to give it a false strength, or to rob it of its most valuable constituents. All these adulterations are manifestly of a designedly fraudulent character, and are therefore properly the subjects of judicial inquiry; but there may be accidental corruptions and adulterations of a commodity, arising from natural or unavoidable causes, as when darnel or ergot become mixed with grain in the fields of the slovenly farmer, or when an article becomes changed and deteriorated from spontaneous decay, or when mineral matters and other impurities are accidentally derived from the machinery or vessels in which the thing is prepared or kept. The recognition of such impurities, and the tracing of them to their source, is of prime importance in pursuing a charge of adulteration. Few articles of commerce, however, are exempt from fraudulent adulteration, and the practice of it has grown with the competition of trade, and the removal of those wholesome restrictions which in former times were so energetically opposed to all kinds of dishonest dealing; for the guilds and companies of all large cities had their corporate regulations for supervising and governing every description of trade and manufacture. The excise, too, including the customs, had until recently control over the quality of all exciseable articles; and ...although the prime object of this was to protect the revenue of the country, yet it also served to prevent adulteration. In addition to this there were in ancient times ordinances of assize for regulating the price and quality of the common necessaries of life. As far back as the reign of John (1203) there was a proclamation throughout the kingdom for enforcing the legal obligations of assize as regards bread; and in the following reign the statute (51 Hen. III. stat. 6), entitled the Pillory and Tumbrel, was framed for the express purpose of protecting the public from the dishonest dealings of bakers, vintners, brewers, butchers, and others. This statute is deserving of notice as the first in which the adulteration of human food is specially noticed and prohibited; and it seems to have been enforced with more or less of rigour until the time of Anne, when it was repealed (8 Anne, c. 19). According to Liber Albus, it was strictly observed in the days of Edward I., for it states that “if any default shall be found in the bread of a baker in the city, the first time, let him be drawn upon a hurdle from the Guildhall to his own house through the great street where there be most people assembled, and through the great streets which are most dirty, with the faulty loaf hanging from his neck; if a second time he shall be found committing the same offence, let him be drawn from the Guildhall through the great street of Cheepe, in the manner aforesaid, to the pillory, and let him be put upon the pillory, and remain there at least one hour in the day; and the third time that such default shall be found, he shall be drawn, and the oven shall be pulled down, and the baker made to forswear the trade in the city for ever.” Vintners, spicers, grocers, butchers, regrators, and others, were subject to the like punishment for dishonesty in their commercial dealings—it being thought that the pillory, by appealing to the sense of shame, was far more deterrent of such crimes than fine or imprisonment. But all this has given way to the force of free trade, and now the practice of adulteration has become an art, in which the knowledge of science and the ingenuity of trade are freely exercised. Fifty years ago it attracted the attention of one of the most expert chemists of the day, Mr Accum, who, in his Treatise on Adulterations of Food, and Culinary Poisons, declared it to be an “art and mystery.” Subsequently to that, in 1851 and the three following years, articles on the adulteration of food appeared in the Lancet, and the effect of those articles was to call for a Parliamentary inquiry, which resulted in the Adulteration of Food Act of 1860. That Act of Parliament gave power to certain local authorities in England, Scotland, and Ireland to appoint analysts, having competent medical, chemical, and microscopical knowledge. The penalty for selling an adulterated article, knowing it to be so adulterated, was five pounds, and the costs of the proceedings. But as the statute was permissive, only a few analysts were appointed, and it soon became a dead letter. Attempts were subsequently made to improve the law, and to make it compulsory on local authorities to appoint analysts. One of these was the Bill of 1869, and another was that of 1871—both of which were abandoned by their promoters. In the year 1872, however, an Act was passed, entitled An Act to amend the Laws for the Prevention, of Adulteration of Food, Drink, and Drugs. The main features of this Act are the following :—Local authorities in England, Scotland, and Ireland are bound to appoint analysts with competent medical, chemical, and microscopical knowledge. They must also appoint officers or inspectors to purchase articles of food, drink, and drugs within their respective districts, aud take them to the analyst for examination. Other purchasers of such articles are permitted, under proper restrictions, to have suspected articles analysed. On receiving a certificate from the analyst, stating that any article is adulterated, the inspector must take the necessary legal proceedings for the purpose of bringing the offender to justice. The penalty on conviction of mixing anything whatever with a drug, with the view of adulterating it, or of mixing any injurious or poisonous ingredient with any article of food or drink, is a sum not exceeding fifty pounds, together with the costs; and for the second offence he shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and be imprisoned for a period not exceeding six calendar months with hard labour. The penalty for selling an adulterated article with a guilty knowledge is a sum not exceeding twenty pounds, together with the costs; and for a second offence, the justice may order the offender’s name, place of abode, and offence to be published in a newspaper, or in any manner he thinks fit, at the expense of the offender. Although the meaning of the term adulteration is not strictly defined in the Act, yet it is declared that the admixture of anything whatever with an article of food, drink, or drug, for the purpose of fraudulently increasing its weight or bulk, is an adulteration within the provisions of the Act. The adulteration of intoxicating liquors is provided for by the Licensing Act 1872 (35 and 36 Vict. c. 94); and in this Act there is a schedule of substances, called “Deleterious Ingredients’’ which are considered to be adulterations: they are Cocculus indicus, chloride of sodium or common salt, copperas, opium, Indian hemp, strychnine, tobacco, darnel seed, extract of logwood, salts of zinc or lead, alum, and any extract or compound of any of these. The execution of this Act rests with the police authorities and the Inland Revenue. The penalties for adulteration are very severe, leaving it to the magistrate either to inflict a heavy fine or to send the offender to prison. In the year 1869 an Act was passed to prevent the adulteration of seeds, in fraud of Her Majesty’s subjects, and to the great detriment of agriculture (32 and 33 Vict. c. 112), wherein it is declared that the killing of seeds, the dying of them, and the selling of such killed or dyed seeds, with intent to defraud, is punishable with a penalty not exceeding five pounds for the first offence, nor exceeding fifty pounds for a second or subsequent offence, together with the publication of the offender’s name, place of abode, and offence in any manner that the justice thinks fit.
Adulteration in other countries is strictly prohibited under penal obligations. The Prussian penal code provides that any person selling adulterated or spoiled goods shall be liable to a penalty up to fifty dollars, or imprisonment for six weeks, with confiscation of goods; and it is not necessary to prove that the seller was aware of the adulteration. In Holland, the Dutch law is very similar to the code Napoleon, and inflicts a punishment of imprisonment for from six days to two years, with a fine of from 16 to 600 francs. The adulteration of bread with copperas or sulphate of zinc is dealt with by imprisonment of from two to five years, and a fine of from 200 to 500 florins. In Paris, malpractices connected with the adulteration of food are investigated by the Conseil de Salubrité and punished. Much valuable information concerning the adulteration of food, drink, and drugs in foreign countries has lately been obtained from the various British legations and consulates abroad, through a circular addressed to them from the Foreign Office. These investigations were commenced by the late Earl of Clarendon, and have been continued by Earl Granville. The results have been published in the Food Journal for 1870 and 1871; and they are epitomised at page 193 of the journal of the last mentioned date.
Among the adulterations which are practised for the purpose of fraudulently increasing the weight or bulk of an article are the following :—
1. Adulterations of Milk.— This is commonly effected by the addition of water—technically termed Simpson; and it is known by the appearance of the milk, the specific gravity of it, the quantity of cream which rises, and the chemical composition of the milk. Good milk has a rich appearance, and a full pleasant taste. Its specific gravity ranges from 1029 (water being 1000) to 1032—the average being 1030. If, therefore, the density of milk is above 1030, other conditions corresponding, the inference is that the sample is unusually good. Between 1028 and 1030 it is most probably genuine. At from 1026 to 1028 it is of doubtful quality, and below that, unless the amount of cream is enormously large, the sample is not genuine. An instrument, called a galactometer, has been constructed to show the specific gravity of milk at a glance; but it must always be remembered that while the addition of water tends to lower the gravity of milk, so also does the presence of much cream, and therefore a sample of skimmed milk may show a high gravity even when diluted with water. The percentage quantity of cream is ascertained by means of an instrument called a lactometer. It is a glass tube about 10 or 11 inches long and half an inch in diameter, graduated into 100 parts. Having shaken a sample of milk so as to diffuse the cream throughout its bulk, it is poured into the lactometer to the topmost division; and after standing for 12 hours, to allow the cream to rise, the proportion of it is read off from the divisions on the tube. Good milk shows a range of from 8 to 12 divisions. Conjoined with the preceding test, this affords reliable indication of the quality of the sample. After removing the cream, the gravity should be again taken, and this should not be lower than 1030. The chemical composition of milk varies to some extent with the breed of the cow, its age, the diet upon which it is fed, the time of calving, and the time of milking; for afternoon milk is generally richer than morning, and the last drawn than the first. But taking the results of a large number of analyses by different chemists, it may be said that the average percentage composition of milk is as follows :—Casein or cheese matter, 3∙64; butter, 3∙55 ; milk, sugar or lactose, 4∙70; saline matter, 0∙81; and water, 87∙30. If, therefore, 1000 grains of milk be treated with a few drops of acetic acid, and then heated in a flask to about 120° Fahr., the casein of the milk will curdle, and enclose within it all the butter. When it is quite cold, it can easily be filtered, and when dry, the curd and butter should weigh from 75 to 85 grains; and the serum or whey should have a density of about 1029. The addition of mineral matter, as common salt or carbonate of soda, to milk is easily recognised by an examination of the ash or saline constitutents. 1000 grains of good milk evaporated to dryness will produce from 120 to 130 grains of solid matter, of which about 8 grains are mineral; and these are left in the platinum capsule, when the solid matter is incinerated or burnt to an ash. Of this ash about half is phosphate of lime, and 2∙7 are alkaline chlorides, the rest being phosphates of magnesia and iron, with a little carbonate of soda. Any notable increase, therefore, in the proportion of ash, or any large diminution of it, will show adulteration. Colouring matter, as annatto, &c., is known by the peculiar tint of the milk; and starchy matters boiled to an emulsion will give their characteristic reactions with iodine, and will furnish a sediment which the microscope will reveal. Fatty emulsions, in imitation of milk, were used during the siege of Paris, on the recommendation of Μ. Dubrunfaut, who claims to have made a very perfect substitute by emulsifying fatty matter with an artificial whey or serum. This he did by dissolving from 40 to 50 grammes of saccharine matter (lactose, glucose, or cane sugar), and from 20 to 30 grammes of albumen (dried white of egg), and from 1 to 2 grammes of the crystals of carbonate of soda, in half a litre of water, and then emulsifying with from 50 to 60 grammes of olive oil or other fatty substance. This is best done at a temperature of from 120° to 140° Fahr.; and the liquid so prepared has the appearance of cream, and requires to be mixed with twice its volume of water to acquire the consistence of milk. Gelatine may be used instead of albumen, the mixture being even more nearly like rich cream than the former. Μ. Gaudin says that any kind of fat may be used for this purpose, provided it is purified with superheated steam; and Μ. Fan states that even horse grease may be so employed. Μ. Dumas, however, is of opinion that none of these substitutes can take the place of milk for any time as dietetical agents. Milk from diseased animals, especially those affected with pleuropneumonia, and the foot-and-mouth disease, is very unwholesome, aud ought not to be drunk. The diseased product is recognised by the presence of abnormal inflammatory globules of the nature of pus, and by a large amount of epithelium cells. Preserved condensed milk is now so commonly used for food, that its properties when good should be known. 100 parts of the specimens at present in the market consist of from 14 to 18 parts of casein, from 12 to 14 of butter, from 44 to 52 of sugar, and from 2∙4 to 2∙7 of saline matter—making in all from 77 to 81 parts of solid matter—the rest, namely, from 23 to 19 parts, being water. It appears, therefore, that the concentration of the milk has been carried to about one-third of its original bulk, and that sugar has then been added, so that when diluted with twice its volume of water, it makes a sweet-tasting milk of ordinary strength. Good cream should contain rom 25 to 34 parts of butter, about 5 of casein, 2 of sugar, 2 of saline matter, and from 62 to 56 parts of water.
2. Coffee has from very early times been the subject of sophistication. As far back as 1725, the Act 2 Geo. I. c. 30, took cognizance of the practice, and rendered it penal. In 1803 it was the object of very decisive measures, for by 43 Geo. III. c. 129, the officers of excise were empowered to search for, and to seize any burnt, scorched, or roasted peas, beans, or other grains or vegetable substance prepared in imitation of coflee; and any person manufacturing or selling the same was liable to a penalty of £100; gradually, however, it was found that use of torrefied vegetables in lieu of coffee, was becoming general in spite of these restrictions, and, therefore, in 1822, the Legislature (3 Geo. IV. c. 53) thought it expedient to allow the manufacture and sale of scorched or roasted corn, peas, beans, or turnips, by persons who were not dealers or sellers of coffee or cocoa, provided the same was sold under license in a whole or unground condition, and in its proper name. The penalty for infraction of the law was £100 in the case of a dealer in coffee or cocoa, and £50 in that of a licensed dealer. At that time the use of chicory was not generally known in England, although it had long before been introduced into France as a substitute for coffee; and its use was encouraged by the first Napoleon, who thought thus to strike a blow at English commerce. It was also used in Belgium and the Netherlands, so that travellers who visited Paris, Brussels, or Amsterdam, became acquainted with the substitute, and gradually acquired a taste for it. About the year 1820 the first parcels of chicory were imported into this country, and it would seem that the public demand for it gradually increased; for in 1832 there was a minute of the Treasury nullifying the Acts of George III. and George IV., by allowing grocers and other dealers in coffee and cocoa to sell chicory, provided they did not mix it with coffee. At a later period even this restriction was withdrawn; for by the Treasury minute of 1840, dealers in coffee were permitted to sell a mixture of chicory and coffee, provided a duty of 6d. per lb. was paid on all the chicory imported for home consumption. The use of it being thus legalised, it rapidly came into favour, and English farmers found it profitable to cultivate the root, and to send it into commerce duty free. This roused the attention of the Government, for the duties on chicory and coffee began seriously to fall off. Even the quality of the coffee imported underwent a change; for instead of demanding the fine flavoured varieties, orders were given for a coarse and strong description of plantation coffee, which would stand a good deal of chicory, as the grocers phrased it. All this was brought to the notice of the Lords of the Treasury, and in 1852 they revoked the order of 1840. But so strong was the influence of the trade upon Government, that in the following year the offensive minute was withdrawn, and grocers were again permitted to sell mixtures of coffee and chicory, provided the packet was distinctly labelled “mixture of chicory and coffee.” The Treasury even went so far in 1858 as to direct the Commissioners of Inland Revenue, not to object to licensed dealers in coffee keeping and selling mangel-wurzel or beet-root mixed with coffee, provided they observed the same conditions as those laid down in the Treasury minute of 1853 as to chicory and coffee. Up to this time the duty on chicory had been merely nominal; but it was gradually increased until, in 1863, it was equivalent to that levied on coffee, and thus the revenue was protected, while adulteration was encouraged. The extent to which this was practised may be gathered from the Annual Reports of Mr Phillips, the principal chemist of the Inland Revenue Laboratory. During the years 1856 to 1862 inclusive, when the dealers in coffee and chicory were visited by the officers of Excise, the average number of samples of coffee annually examined was 3053, and of these 90, or nearly 3 per cent. were adulterated—the range being from 5∙1 per cent. in 1856, to 1∙8 per cent. in 1862; and the quantity of chicory in the mixture averaged 24 per cent. In 1860 it was 29 per cent. Now, in all these cases the coffee was sold as pure coffee, with no label upon the package; but when the mixtures of chicory and coffee were asked for, 7∙3 per cent. were improperly labelled, and the average proportions of chicory ranged from 39∙8 per cent. in 1859, to 22∙3 per cent. in 1862—the average for the seven years, before the duties were equalised, being 30∙7 per cent. In some cases,...
