Physical Aspects. —The Bombay Presidency consists of a long strip of land along the Indian Ocean from the south of the Panjab to the north of Mysor, from 25° to 14° 3' N. lat. The coast is rock-bound and difficult of access; and though it contains several bays forming fair-weather ports for vessels engaged in the coasting trade, Bombay, Karachi in Sindh, and Karwar alone have harbours sufficiently landlocked to protect shipping during the prevalence of the south-west monsoon. The coast-line is regular and little broken, save by the Gulfs of Kambay and Kachh, between which lies the peninsula of Kathiawar.

Mountains.— Speaking generally, a range of hills, known as the Western Ghats (ghauts), runs down the coast, at places rising in splendid bluffs and precipices from the water’s edge, at others retreating inland, and leaving a flat fertile strip of 5 to 50 miles between their base and the sea. In the north of the Presidency on the right bank of the Indus, the HA1A mountains, a continuation of the great Sulaiman range, separate British India from the dominions of the Khan of Khelat. Leaving Sindh, and passing by the ridges of low sand hills,—the leading feature of the desert east of the Indus,—and the isolated hills of Kachh and Kathiawar, which form geologically the western extremity of the Aravali range, the first extensive mountain range is that separating Gujarat from the states of Central India. The rugged and mountainous country south of the Tapti forms the northern extremity of the. Sahyadri or Western Ghats. This great range of hills, sometimes overhanging the ocean, and generally running parallel to it at a distance nowhere exceeding 50 miles, with an average elevation of about 1800 feet, contains individual peaks rising to more than double that height. They stretch southwards for upwards of 500 miles, with a breadth of 10 to 20 miles. The western declivity is abrupt, the land at the base of the hills being but slightly raised above the level of the sea. As is usually the case with the trap formation, they descend to the plains in terraces with abrupt fronts. The landward slope is in many places very gentle, the crest of the range being sometimes but slightly raised above the level of the plateau of the Dakhin. Their best-known elevation is Mahabaleshwar, 4800 feet high, a fine plateau, 37 miles from Pûna, covered with rich vegetation, and used by the Bombay Government as its summer retreat and sanitarium. In the neighbourhood of the Sahyadri hills, particularly towards the northern extremity of the range, the country is rugged and broken, containing isolated peaks, masses of rock, and spurs, which, running eastward, form watersheds for the great rivers of the Dakhin. The Satpura hills separate the valley of the Tapti from the valley of the NarbadA, and the district of Khandesh from the territories of Indor. The Satmala or Ajanta hills, which are rather the northern slope of the plateau than a distinct range of hills, separate Khandesh from the Nizam’s dominions.

Plains.— The more level parts of Bombay consist of five well-demarcated tracts—Sindh, Gujarat, the Konkan, the Dakhin or Deccan, and the Karnatic. Sindh, or the lower valley of the Indus, is very flat, with but scanty vegetation, and depending for productiveness entirely on irrigation. Gujarat, except on its northern parts, consists of rich, highly cultivated alluvial plains, watered by the Tapti and NarbadA, but not much subject to inundation. The Konkan lies between the Western Ghats and the sea. It is a rugged and difficult country, intersected by creeks, and abounding in isolated peaks and detached ranges of hills. The plains of the Dakhin and Khandesh are watered by large rivers, but as the rainfall is uncertain, they are generally, during the greater part of the year, bleak and devoid of vegetation. The Karnatic plain, or the country south of the River KrishnA, consists of extensive tracts of black or cotton soil in a high state of cultivation.

Rivers.— The chief river of Western India is the Indus, which enters the Presidency from the north of Sindh, and flowing south in a tortuous course, falls into the Arabian Sea by several mouths, such as the Ghizri creek, Khudi creek, Pitiani creek, Sisa creek, Hajamri creek, Vatho creek, Mall creek, Wari creek, Bhitiara creek, Sir creek, and Khori creek. In the dry season the bed varies at different places from 480 to 1600 yards. The flood season begins in March and continues till September, the average depth of the river rising from 9 to 24 feet, and the velocity of the current increasing from 3 to 7 miles an hour. Next to the Indus comes the NarbadA. Rising in the Central Provinces,' and traversing the dominions of Holkar, the Narbada enters the Presidency at the north-western extremity of the Khandesh district, flows eastward, and after a course of 700 miles from its source, falls into the Gulf of Kambay, forming near its mouth the alluvial plain of Broach, one of the richest districts of Bombay. For about 100 miles from the sea the Narbada is at all seasons navigable by small boats, and during the rains by vessels of from 30 to 50 tons burden. The Tapti enters the Presidency a few miles south of the town of Burhanpur, a station on the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, flows eastward through the district of Khandesh, the native state of Rewakanta, and the district of Surat, and falls into the Gulf of Kambay, a few miles west of the town of Surat. The Tapti drains about 250 miles of country, and is, in a commercial point of view, the most useful of the Gujarat rivers. Besides these there are many minor streams. The Banas and the Saraswati take their rise in the Aravali hills, and flowing eastward through the native state of Pahlanpur, fall into the Rann of Kachh. The Sabarmati and the Mahi rise in the Mahikanta hills, and flowing southwards, drain the districts of Northern Gujarat, and fall into the sea near the head of the Gulf of Kambay. The streams which, rising in the Sáhyádri range, or Western Gháts, flow westward into the Arabian Sea, are of little importance. During the rains they are formidable torrents, but with the return of the fair weather they dwindle away, and during the hot season, with a few exceptions, they almost dry up. Clear and rapid as they descend the hills, on reaching the lowlands of the Konkan they become muddy and brackish creeks. The Kanarese rivers have a larger body of water and a more regular flow than the streams of the Konkan. One of them, the Sheráwatí, forcing its way through the western ridge of the Gháts, plunges from the high to the low country by a succession of falls, the principal of which is 890 feet in height. The Sáhyádri, or Western Gháts, also throw off to the eastward the two principal rivers of the Madras Presidency, the Godávarí and the Krishná. These rivers collect countless tributary streams, some of them of considerable size, and drain the entire plain of the Dakhín as they pass eastward towards the Bay of Bengal.

Lakes.— The Manchar Lake is situated on the right bank of the Indus. During inundations it attains a length of 20 miles, and a breadth of 10, covering a total area estimated at 180 square miles. But the most peculiar lacustrine feature of the Presidency is the Rann or Lake of Kachh (Cutch), which, according to the season of the year, is a salt marsh, an inland lake, or an arm of the sea. Its area is estimated at 8000 square miles. It forms the western boundary of the province of Gujarát, and when flooded during the rains, unites the Gulfs of Kachh (Cutch) and Kambay, and converts the territory of Kachh into an island. In the dry season the soil is impregnated with salt, the surface in some places being moist and muddy, and in others, like a dry river bed or sea-beach, strewn with gravel or shingle. The Rann is now used as the great source of salt supply for the whole Presidency. Its present condition is probably the result of some natural convulsion. But whether the Rann is an arm of the sea from which the waters have receded, or an inland lake whose seaward barrier has been swept away, still remains a matter of discussion.

Climate.— Great varieties of climate are met with in the Presidency. In its extreme dryness and heat, combined with the aridity of a sandy soil, Upper Sindh resembles the sultry deserts of Africa. The mean maximum temperature at Haidarábád, in Lower Sindh, during the six hottest months of the year, is 98° 5' in the shade, and the water of the Indus reaches blood heat; in Upper Sindh it is even hotter, and the thermometer has been known to register 130° in the shade. In Kachh and in Gujarát the heat, though less, is still very great. The Konkan is hot and moist, the fall of rain during the monsoon sometimes approaching 300 inches. The table-land of the Dakhín above the Gháts, on the contrary, has an agreeable climate except in the hot months, as has also the southern Marhattâ country; and in the hills of Mahábaleshwar, Singarh, and other detached heights, Europeans may go out at all hours with impunity. Bombay Island itself, though in general cooled by the sea breeze, is oppressively hot during May and October. The south-west monsoon generally sets in about the first week in June, and pours down volumes of rain along the coast. From June to October travelling is difficult and unpleasant, except in Sindh, where the monsoon rains exert little influence.

Forests.— Bombay Presidency possesses two great classes of forests—those of the hills and those of the alluvial plains. The hill forests are scattered over a wide area, extending from 23° to 14° N. lat. Most of them lie among the Sáhyádri hills or Western Gháts. The alluvial forests lie in Sindh, on or close to the banks of the Indus, and extend over an area of 550 square miles. The principal timber trees in the forests arc—teak; blackwood of two varieties (Dalbergia Sisu and Dalbergia latifolia), Dalbergia ujain∙ ensis, Pterocarpus Marsupium, Terminalia glabra, Acacia arabica, Acacia Catechu, Nauclea cordifolia, Nauclea parvifolia, Bidelia spinosa, H ardwickia binata, Juga xylocarpa, Populus euphratica, and Tamarix indica. The forests contain many trees which, on account of their fruits, nuts, or berries, are valuable, irrespective of the quality of their timber. Among these are the mango (Mang fera indica) ; the jack (Artocarpus integrifolia), Zizyphus Jujuba, Ae gle Marmelos, Terminalia Chebula, Calophyllum Inophyllum, Bassia latifolia, and Pongamia glabra. The jungle tribes collect gum from several varieties of trees, and in Sindh the Forest Department derives a small revenue from lac. The palms of the Presidency consist of cocoa-nut, date, palmyra, and areca catechu.

Geology.— Geologically the Bombay Presidency is divided into two tracts: the north-western part, consisting of Sindh, Kachh (Cutch), and Gujarát; and the south-western, comprising the Marhattá country. Undulating sandy plains, with scattered craggy hills, are found in Gujarát; the immense alluvial flats to the north being, for the most part, deserts of blown sand, and the fertile country consisting of a belt along the borders of the sea. In Sindh, the country, except on the banks of the Indus, or where reclaimed by irrigation, is an arid tract of gravel and sand, from which rise steep scarps of limestone ranges. The rocks of Gujarát, Kachh, and Sindh, are only partially represented in the more southern peninsula, and are continuous with the formations found in Persia and Arabia. In the Marhattá country the greater portion of the surface is composed of nearly horizontal strata of basalt and similar rocks.

Population. —The census of 1872 returns the total area of the Presidency, including Sindh, at 188,195 square miles, and the total population at 25,624,696 souls. Details, however, are only available for the British part of the Presidency, which contains an area of 124,943 square miles, and a total population of 16,352,623 souls. The average density of population in the British districts is 131 persons per square mile, but it varies from a maximum of 29,291 ∙13 in Bombay city to 14∙20 in Thar and Párkar. Total number of houses in the British districts, 2,164,338; and average number of persons per house, 4∙99. Of the total population of the British portion, 12,440,659, or 76∙08 per cent., are Hindus; 2,847,756, or 17∙4 pel cent., Muhammadans; 192,245, or 1T7 per cent., Buddhists; 106,133, or 0∙65 per cent., Christians; 67,115, or 0∙41 per cent., Pársís; 603,836, or 3∙69 per cent., aborigines; and 94,879, or 0∙58 per cent., of unspecified religion or nationality. The males number 8,547,100, or 52 per cent. of the population; the females, 7,805,523, or 48 per cent. The percentage of the total number of children under twelve years of age is 31∙65. The Hindus are most numerous in Satára, and fewest in the Upper Sindh Frontier district. The Muhammadans form nearly the whole population of Sindh, and are least numerous in the Pánch Mahals. Except in Sindh, the Buddhists are widely scattered throughout the whole Presidency. The Christians are chiefly confined to Bombay city, Tánná, the Indo-Portuguese possessions, and the larger cantonments, such as Púna. The British districts of the Presidency contain upwards of 26,800 villages, and 175 towns of upwards of 5000 inhabitants. Besides Bombay city, there are 213 municipalities established under Act 26 of 1850, Of these, 4 have an income of over £10,000; 27 of over £1000; 22 of over £500; 94 of over £100; and 66 of under £100. Exclusive of the town of Bombay, the total municipal revenue realised in 1872-73 amounted to £198,857. Average rate of municipal taxation, 2s. 1½d. per head of the town population. The principal sources of municipal revenue are the octroi duties, house tax, and wheel tax Agricultural Products. —The staple crops are as follows :—Joár {Sorghum vulgare) and bâjrâ {Holcus spicatus) are the staple food grains in the Dakhin and Khândesh. Rice is the chief product of the Konkan. Wheat, generally grown in the northern part of the Presidency, but specially in Sindh and Gujarât, is exported to Europe in large quantities from Karachi, and on a smaller scale from Bombay. Barley is principally grown in the northern parts of the Presidency. Nâchani {Eleusine coracana) and Kodrâ {Paspalum scrobiculatunι), inferior grains grown on the hill sides, furnish food to the Kulis, Bhils, Wâralis, and other aboriginal tribes. Of the pulses the most important are gram {Cicer arietinum), tùr {Cajanus indictis), kulti {Dolichos biflorus), and mug {Phaseolus Mungo). Principal oil-seeds: til {Sesamum orientale), mustard, castor-oil, safflower, and linseed. Of fibres the most important are cotton, Dakhlni hemp {Hibiscus cannabinus), and san or tâg {Crotolaria juncea). Much has been done of late years to improve the cotton of the Presidency. American varieties have been introduced with much advantage in the Dhârwâr collectorate and other parts of the southern Marhattâ country. In Khândesh the indigenous plant from which one of the 2owest classes of cotton in the Bombay market takes its name, has been almost entirely superseded by the superior Hinganghât variety. Miscellaneous crops :—Sugar-cane, requiring a rich soil and a perennial water supply, and only grown in favoured localities, red pepper, potatoes, turmeric, and tobacco. In 1871-72, 3,379,937 acres were under cotton cultivation; in 1872-73 the area increased to 3,715,945 acres. The total out-turn was 260,444 candies (560 β>) in 1872-73, against 221,144 in 1871-72. A legislative enactment has been passed to prevent adulteration of cotton, and in 1872-73, 24 persons were convicted under it. In 1872-73, 2281 steam cotton gιnf were at work with 158 steam presses. Two model farms have been established in the Presidency—one at Hâlâ, near Haidarâbâd, in Sindh, and the other in Khândesh. Experiments have been instituted in the cultivation of fibres and tobacco. Large quantities of Carolina rice seed were distributed over the country, but the results hitherto cannot be deemed to have been successful. The same may be said of the endeavours which have been made to propagate the cinchona tree near Mahâbaleshwar. Acreage under principal crops—Joâr, 6,552,385 acres; bajrâ, 4,560,271; rice, 2,009,115; wheat, 1,322,835; and pulses, 1,167,809 acres. The land system of the Presidency is complicated, each province having a variety of tenures of its own. But the most important, and by far the most universal, is the survey tenure created by the British administration, which gives a right of occupancy to the holder on condition of his paying the Government demand.

Public Works and Railways. —In 1872-73 the sum of £1,180,000 was expended on account of Public Works in the Bombay Presidency; and the allotment under this head tends annually to increase. In the same year there were five railways open—1. The Great Indian Peninsula Railway: total miles open, 1278; total capital invested, £25,569,568; total receipts during the year, £1,872,826; working expenses, £1,203,200; net profit, £669,626. 2. The Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway: miles open, 389; capital invested, £8,418,202; receipts, £564,931; working expenses, £338,786; net profit, £226,145. 3. The Khâmgâon State Railway: miles open,

8; capital invested, £48,530; receipts, £1241; working expenses, £562; net profit, £679. 4. The Amrâoti Rail way: miles open, 5 j; capital invested, £43,730; receipts, £2302; working expenses, £1241; net profit, £1061. 5.

The Sindh section of the Sindh Panjâb and Dehli Railway: miles open, 106; capital invested, £2,646,106; receipts, £157,100; working expenses, £118,934; net profit, £38,166. Total miles open of the above five railways, 1786|; total capital invested, £36,726,136; total receipts in 1872, £2,598,400; total working expenses, £1,662,723; total net profit, £980,667. Besides these, the following railways are either in progress or about to be undertaken: —(1), State line, Southern Marhattâ country; (2), Native State line, Virâwal, Junâgarh, and Dhorâji; (3), Pâtri Branch (State line, light rail); (4), Anand and Dâkor Branch; (5), Migângâon and Dhaboi Railway; (6), Wardhâ to Hinganghât and Warorâ: (7), Wadi to Haidarâbâd; (8), Khandwâ to Indor. In 1872-73 the Bombay Telegraph Department had 4406 miles of wire in operation.

Post-Offices. —In 1872-73, 447 post-offices were distributed over the Presidency; total mileage of postal lines, 10,208 miles; total number of letters, parcels, &c., despatched and received, 17,601,982.

Mines and Quarries. —The Presidency of Bombay though deficient in mineral wealth, is abundantly supplied with stores of stone fitted for building and road-making purposes. At Teagar, in the Dhârwâr district, iron-ore is mined and smelted, but the scarcity of fuel prevents operations being conducted on an extensive scale. There are also large slate quarries in Dhârwâr. Mândargé hill is quarried extensively for stone, the right of working it being annually sold by public auction. In Belgâm district are quarries, from which building stones, stone bricks, or oblong quadrangular blocks of soft rock are obtained in abundance. Limestone is also found in the river beds of this district. There are a few trap and laterite quarries in the Ratnâgiri district. The trap stone is used for tank and well building, and for the plinths of houses; the laterite is used for housebuilding. Near Karâchi are five quarries containing a species of limestone, largely used in buildings in that town.

Manufactures. —The indigenous manufactures of the country have rapidly declined since the influx of Manchester goods. But cotton weaving is still carried on upon a small scale in every village of any importance. Dyeing is practised in most places where fresh water is procurable. Printed cotton goods are manufactured in all the large towns of Gujarât, and the further the locality is removed from the direct influence of railways the better the work is....