one of the four cardinal points of the world; namely, that particular point of the horizon in which the sun is seen to rise. The Hebrews express the east, west, north, and south by words which signify before, behind, left, and right, according to the situation of a man who has his face turned toward the east. By the east, they frequently describe, not only Arabia Deserta, and the lands of Moab and Ammon, which lay to the east of Palestine, but also Assyria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Chaldea, though they are situated rather to the north than to the east of Judea. Balaam, Cyrus, and the wise men who visited Bethlehem at the time Christ was born, are said to come from the east, Num. xxiii, 7; Isaiah xlvi, 11; Matt. ii, 1.
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EAST SAGINAW, a city of Saginaw county, Michigan, United States, is situated on the Saginaw river, about 90 miles N.N.W. of Detroit. It extends about three miles along the river, with a breadth of nearly a mile. It is the principal depot of the salt and lumber trade of the Saginaw valley, and possesses foundries, boiler-shops, saw-mills, and shingle-mills. It is the terminus of the Saginaw Valley and St Louis Railway, while a branch of the Flint and Père Marquette Railway radiates here to Bay city and another to Caro, Tuscola county. On the opposite bank of the river is the Jackson, Lansing, and Saginaw line. East Saginaw was incorporated as a village in 1855, and obtained a city charter in 1859. Population in 1870, 11,350.
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EASTBOURNE, a watering-place on the Sussex coast, 66 miles from London by railway. It is situated about three miles to the east of Beachy Head, the loftiest headland on the English Channel. It once consisted of three parts :—the old village of East Bourne, a mile inland; South Bourne, lying back from the shore; and Seahouses, facing the beach; but these distinctions are now almost obliterated, and numerous handsome terraces and detached houses have more or less united the three old hamlets into one town. Besides the parish church of St Mary’s, a building of some antiquity, there are four chapels of ease in Eastbourne. A pier was erected in 1868. The population, which is rapidly increasing, was 10,361 in 1871.
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EASTER, the annual festival observed throughout Christendom in commemoration of the Resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ. The word Easter— Anglo-Saxon, Eastre, Foster; German, Ostern — like the names of the days of the week, is a survival from the old Teutonic mythology. According to Bede lfi)e Temp. Rat., c. xv.) it is derived from Eostre, or Ostdra, the Anglo-Saxon goddess of spring, to whom the fourth month, answering to our April—thence called Eostur-monath— was dedicated. This month, Bede informs us, was the same as the “Mensie Paschalis,” when “the old festival was observed with the gladuess of a new solemnity.’’
The name by which Easter is known among the Romance nations—French pâques; Italian, pasqua; Spanish, pascua — is derived through the Latin pascha, and the Greek 7rασ-χα, from the Chaldee or Aramaean form, N∏pS pascha' , of the Hebrew name of the Passover festival, ∏D5, pesach j from DS, “he passed over,” in memory of the great deliverance when the destroying angel “passed over the houses of the children of Israel in Egypt when he smote the Egyptians,” Exod. xii. 27. An erroneous derivation of pascha is given by some of the early fathers of the church, e.g., Irenaeus, Tertullian, &c., to whom Hebrew was an unknown tongue, from the Greek 7rαcrχen∕, “to suffer,” as being the period of our Lord's sufferings. St Augustine (in Joann. Track 55) notices this false etymology, and shows how similarity of sound had led to the error, and gives the true derivation....
There is no trace of the celebration of Easter as a Christian festival in the New Testament or in the writings of the apostolic fathers. The sanctity of special times or places was an idea quite alien from the early Christian mind, too profoundly absorbed in the events themselves to think of their external accidents. “The whole of time is a festival unto Christians because of the excellency of the good things which have been given,” writes Chrysostom, commenting on the passage 1 Cor. V. 7, which has been erroneously supposed to refer to an apostolic observance of Easter. Origen also in the same spirit (Contr. Celsum, viii. 22) urges that the Christian who dwells on the truths of Christ as our Passover and the gift of the Holy Ghost, is every day keeping an Easter and Pentecostal feast. The ecclesiastical historian Socrates (Hist. Eccl., v. 22) states with perfect truth that neither Christ nor his apostles enjoined the keeping of this or any other festival. “The apostles,” he writes, “had no thought of appointing festival days, but of promoting a life of blamelessness and piety;” and he attributes the introduction of the festival of Easter into the church to the perpetuation of an old usage, “just as many other customs have been established.” This is doubtless the true statement of the case. The first Christians, being derived from, or intimately connected with, the Jewish Church, naturally continued to observe the Jewish festivals, though in anew spirit, as commemorations of events of which these had been the shadows. The Passover, ennobled by the thought of Christ the true Paschal Lamb, the first-fruits from the dead, continued to be celebrated, and became the Christian Easter. Thus the human instinct which everywhere craves for the commemoration of marked epochs in the personal, social, ecclesiastical, or national life, found its legitimate gratification in the public celebration of the events which are the foundation of the Christian faith.
But though the observance of the Paschal festival at a very early period became the rule in the Christian church, a difference as to the time of its observance speedily sprang up between Christians of Jewish and Gentile descent, which led to a long-continued and bitter controversy, and an unhappy severance of Christian union. No rule as to the date of the Easter festivals having been laid down by authority, Christians were left to follow their own instincts. These were naturally different in the Jewish and Gentile churches. The point at issue really was the date of the termination of the Paschal fast. With the Jewish Christians, whose leading thought would be the death of Christ as the true Paschal Lamb, this fast would end at the same time as that of the Jews, on the 14th day of the moon, at evening, and the Easter festival would immediately follow, entirely irrespective of the day of the week. With the Gentile Christians, on the other hand, unfettered by Jewish traditions, the first day of the week would be identified with the Resurrection festival, and the preceding Friday would be kept as the commemoration of the Crucifixion, irrespective of the day of the month, the fast continuing with increasing strictness till the midnight of Saturday. With the one, therefore, the observance of the day of the month, with the other the observance of the day of the week, was the ruling principle. The chief point was the “keeping” or “not keeping” the 14th day of the moon corresponding to that of the month Nisan. Those who, adopting the Jewish rule, did so keep the 14th day were called Teτpαδ∈κατιταt, Teτpaδιτaι, Quartodecimani, and were stigmatized as heretics. In the absence of any authoritative decision as to the day to be observed and the proper mode of calculating it, other discrepancies arose, which led to controversies and dissensions which, in the words of Epiphanius (Panar., Haer. lxx.), distracted the church, and became a source of mockery and ridicule to the unbelievers. “Some,” he writes, “began the festival before the week, some after the week, some at the beginning, some at the middle, some at the end, thus creating a wonderful and laborious confusion.”
This diversity of usage was gradually brought to an end by the verdict of the Church of Rome. The Roman Christians adopted the ordinary Gentile usage, which, within certain limits, placed the observance of the Crucifixion on a Friday, and that of the Resurrection on the following Sunday. A decretal of Pope Pius I., c. 147—the genuineness of which, however, is by no means established—pronounces that “the Pasch should be celebrated on the Lord’s Day by all.” His successor Anicetus was equally firm upon the point. Polycarp, the venerable and sainted bishop of Smyrna, who, according to Irenaeus (apud Euseb., H. E., v. 24), visited Rome in 159 with this object, failed to induce Anicetus to conform to the Quartodeciman usage, which Polycarp had inherited from his master, the Apostle John. Anicetus declined to permit the Jewish custom in the churches under his jurisdiction, but made no scruple of communicating with those who adopted it, and allowed Polycarp to celebrate the Eucharist at Rome. Between thirty and forty years after this visit (197) the same question was controverted in a very different spirit between Victor, bishop of Rome, and Polycrates, bishop of Ephesus, the aged metropolitan of proconsular Asia. This province was the only portion of Christendom that still maintained the Quartodeciman usage, which had been dropt even by the churches of Palestine and Alexandria. Victor’s despotic demand that the Asiatic churches should adopt the Roman system having been met by Polycrates with a courteous but firm refusal, Victor proceeded to excommunicate him and all who held with him. So sweeping a measure shocked the Christian world. Irenaeus remonstrated with the bishop of Rome, and ultimately the Asiatic churches were allowed to retain their usage unmolested. (Euseb., 7/. E., v. 23-25.) We still find the Quartodeciman usage springing up from time to time in various places, but it never took permanent root, and at the time of the Council of Nicaea (325) the Syrians and the Antiochenes were the solitary champions of the Jewish rule. The settlement of this controversy was one among the causes which led the emperor Constantine to summon that council. The consent of the assembled prelates was unanimous. All agreed that Easter should be kept on one and the same day throughout the world, and that none should hereafter follow the blindness of the Jews (Socr., H. E., i. 9). Nothing, however, was said as to the determination of the day. This was practically left to be calculated at Alexandria, the home of astronomical science, and the bishop of that see was to aunounce it annually to the churches under his jurisdiction and to the bishop of Rome, by whom it was to be communicated to the Western churches.
But although measures had thus been apparently taken to secure uniformity of observance, some centuries elapsed before all discrepancy ceased. Λ more intricate question remained to be solved, viz., how the full moon on which Easter depended was to be predicted. The Nicene decrees had effectually crushed the feeble remnants of the Quartodeciman usage. It was established as a rule that Easter must be kept on a Sunday, but there was no general agreement as to the cycle by which the festival was to be calculated,—some churches adopting one rule,some another. We learn from St Ambrose lfEpist. 23) that in 387 the churches of Gaul kept Easter on March 21, while the churches of Italy postponed it to April 18, and those of Egypt a week later still, to April 25; and it appears from an epistle of Leo the Great lfEpist. 64 ad Marcian.} that in 455 there was eight days’ difference between the Roman and Alexandrine Easter. Similar discrepancies are mentioned by Gregory of Tours in the year 577, nor did they disappear from the Gallican Church till the 8th century, although by a canon of the fourth Council of Orleans (541) it had been ordained that the Easter festival should be kept at the same time by all, according to the tables of Victorius. The ancient British Church observed the 84 years’ cycle which they had originally received from Rome, and their stubborn refusal to give it up caused much bitter controversy between the fathers of Iona and the Latin missionaries. These latter unfairly attempted to fix the stigma of the Quartodeciman heresy on their opponents, and they are sometimes even now spoken of as adopting the Asiatic mode of calculation, and false inferences are thence drawn as to the Eastern origin of the British Church. This, however, is quite erroneous. The early British and Irish Church always oommemorated the Crucifixion on a Fιiday and the Resurrection on a Sunday. The only d , 'fference between them and the Romish Church was in the cycle adopted for the computation of the festival,—-the British Church really adhering to the cycle originally adopted by the Romish Church itself, which had been superseded by the more accurate calculations of Victorius of Aquitaine (457), and of Dionysius Exiguus (525). This led to a double Easter being observed by the adherents of the two churches. Thus, as we learn from Bede (Eecl. Hist., iii. 25), in 651 Queen Eanfleda, adopting the Roman rule, was fasting and keeping Palm Sunday while her husband Oswy, king of Northumbria, was celebrating the Easter festival. This diversity of usage was put an end to in the kingdom of Northumbria in the council of Streaneshalch, or Whitby (654); and the Roman rule was finally established in England by Archbishop Theodore in 669. This rule may be thus briefly stated. Easter day is the first Sunday after the 14th day (not the full moon) of the calendar moon which happens on or next after March 21. This calendar moon, however, is not the moon of the heavens, nor the mean moon of the astronomers, but an imaginary moon created for ecclesiastical convenience in advance of the real moon (see Prof. De Morgan’s article in Companion to the Almanac, 1845). After nine centuries a fresh discrepancy in the observance of Easter between the Roman and the English Church was caused by the refusal in England to adopt the Gregorian reformation of the calendar, 1582, apparently for no other reason than that the alteration had originated at Rome. This difference was happily put an end to in 1752, when the “New Style” was adopted in the United Kingdom. The churches of Russia and Greece, and the Oriental churches generally, still observe the unreformed calendar, their Easter falling sometimes before sometimes after that of the Western church; very rarely, as in 1865, the two coincide.
The rules on which the calculation of Easter is based are given in the article Calendar (vol. iv. p. 675).
Easter day, as commemorating the central fact of our religion, has always been regarded as the chief festival of the Christian year, and has been from the earliest times observed with a stately and elaborate ceremonial. It is not, however, the purpose of this article to enter on the ritual observances of Easter, nor on the many curious and interesting popular customs—of which the sending of Pasch eggs, or Easter eggs, is one of the most wide-spread— with which it is connected in all Christian nations. For these last the reader may consult Brand’s Popular Antiquities, Hone’s Every Day Poole, and Chambers’s Book of Days. (e. V.)
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the day on which the Christian church commemorates our Saviour’s resurrection. Easter is a word of Saxon origin, and imports a goddess of the east. This goddess was Astarte, in honour of whom sacrifices were annually offered about the passover time of the year, the spring; and hence the Saxon name “æaster” became attached by association of ideas to the Christian festival of the resurrection.
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EASTLAKE, Sir Charles Lock (1793-1865), an eminent painter who became president of the Royal Academy in London, was born on 17th November 1793 in Plymouth, where his father, a man of uncommon gifts but of indolent temperament, was solicitor to the Admiralty and judge advocate of the Admiralty Court. Charles was educated (like Sir Joshua Reynolds) at the Plympton grammar-school, and in London at the Charterhouse. Towards 1809, partly through the influence of his fellow-Devonian Haydon, of whom he became a pupil, he determined to be a painter; he also studied in the Royal Academy school. In 1813 he exhibited in the British Institution his first picture, a work of considerable size, Christ restoring life to the Daughter of Jairus. In 1814 he was commissioned to copy some of the paintings collected by Napoleon in the Louvre; he returned to England iu 1815, and practised portrait-painting at Plymouth. Here he saw Napoleon a captive on the “Bellerophon;” from a boat he made some sketches of the emperor, and he afterwards painted, from these sketches and from memory, a life-sized full-length portrait of him, which was pronounced a good likeness; it belongs to the marquis of Lansdowne. In 1817 Eastlake went to Italy; in 1819 to Greece; in 1820 back to Italy, where he remained altogether fourteen years, sojourning chiefly in Rome and in Ferrara. Subjects of banditti and peasantlife engaged his pencil mostly from 1820 onwards. In 1827 he exhibited at the Royal Academy his picture of the Spartan Isidas—who (as narrated by Plutarch in the life of Agesilaus), rushing naked out of his bath, performed prodigies of valour against the Theban host. This was the first work that attracted much notice to the name of Eastlake, who in consequence obtained his election as A.R.A.; in ...1830, when he returned to England, as R.A. In 1850 he succeeded Shee as P.R.A. (his only worthy competitor being Landseer, with the elder Pickersgill and George Jones besides, to mark the poor estate of British art, or of its official representatives), and, as usual, he was knighted. Prior to this, in 1841, he had been appointed secretary to the Royal Commission for decorating the Houses of Parliament, and he retained this post until the commission was dissolved in 1862. In 1843 he was made keeper of the National Gallery, a post which he resigned in 1847 in consequence of an unfortunate purchase that roused much animadversion; in 1855, director of the same im stitution, with more extended powers. During his directorship he purchased for the gallery 155 pictures, mostly of the Italian schools. He became also a D.C.L. of Oxford, F.R.S., Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, and member of various foreign academies. In 1849 he married Miss Elizabeth Rigby, a lady of some literary distinction. In 1865 he fell ill at Milan; he died at Pisa on 24th December in the same year, and lies buried at Kensal Green.
As a painter, Eastlake was gentle, harmonious, diligent, and correct; lacking fire of invention or of execution; eclectic, without being exactly imitative; influenced rather by a love of ideal grace and beauty than by any marked bent of individual power or vigorous originality. Among his principal works (which were not numerous, 51 being the total exhibited in the Academy) are:—1828, Pilgrims arriving in sight of Rome (repeated in 1835 and 1836, and perhaps on the whole his chef d , oeuvre)·, 1829, Byron’s Dream (in the National Gallery); 1834, the Escape of Francesco di Carrara (a duplicate in the National Gallery); 1841, Christ Lamenting over Jerusalem (ditto); 1843, Hagar and Ishmael; 1845, Cornus; 1849, Helena; 1851, Ippolita Torelli; 1853, Violante; 1855, Beatrice. These female heads, of a refined semi-ideal quality, with something of Venetian glow of tint, are the most satisfactory specimens of Eastlake’s work to an artist’s eye. He was an accomplished and judicious scholar in matters of art, and published, in 1840, a translation of Goethe’s Theory of Colours; in 1847 (his chief literary work) Materials for a History of Oil-Painting, especially valuable as regards the Flemish school; m 1848, Contributions to the Literature of the Pine Arts; in 1851 and 1855, translated editions of Kugler’s History of the Italian School of Painting, and Handbook of Painting.
Sir Charles Eastlake was a man of middle height, spare form, reddish complexion, bright hair (scanty in advanced life); of unassuming and rather courtier-like bearing; reluctant to oppose or offend, but with a strong sense of official duty. He was a neat and appropriate speaker, and filled his presidential and other offices with great credit in the eyes of all who appreciate moderation and cultured finish in the speech and bearing of a public man.
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EASTON, a borough of the United States, and capital of Northampton county, Pennsylvania, is situated on the right bank of the Delaware immediately above the confluence of the Lehigh, 54 miles north of Philadelphia. The town is very systematically arranged in spite of the irregularity of the ground on which it is built; the water supply from the Lehigh river is abundant, and a strong pressure is obtained by the elevated position of the reservoirs. As the centre of a rich agricultural and mineral district, with free communication both by land and water, Easton has considerable activity at once in trade and manufacture. Among its establishments the borough contains breweries, tanneries, carriage factories, iron foundries, a rope-walk, and an oil-factory; and South Easton, on the other side of the Lehigh, has a cottonfactory, a rolling-mill, and railway engineering works. The principal buildings are the farmers' and mechanics’ institute, the free reading room, and the Presbyterian or Lafayette college, which was founded in 1831, and in 1872 had 25 teachers and 259 students. The borough, laid out in 1738, was incorporated in 1789. Population in 1870, 10.987; or, if South Easton be included, 14,154.
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