The soil is in general fertile, though in some parts it consists of chilka, a red and gritty mould, little fitted for purposes of agriculture. A low jungle springs up in any ground left uncultivated even for a year or two, and in process of time is enlivened by the growth of numerous trees. The principal crops are rice, wheat, maize, jodr, bàjra, rdgi, oil-seeds of various kinds, fruits and garden produce in great variety, cotton, indigo, sugar-cane, and tobacco. Silk, the material known as tusser, the produce of a wild species of worm, is utilized on a large scale. Lac, suitable for use as a resin or dye, gums, and oils are found in great quantities. Hides, raw and tanned, are articles of some importance in commerce. The chief mart for Deccan-bred horses, adapted for military or general purposes, is at a fair at Malegaon in the Bedar district. There is also a horse bazaar near the capital, which is resorted to by merchants from almost every quarter of Asia.

The principal exports are cotton, oil-seeds, country cloths, hides, metal ware, and agricultural produce; the imports are salt, grain, timber, European piece goods, and hardware. Among the manufactures of the country may be mentioned the ornamental ware of Bedar, the gold embroidered cloths of Aurangabad, Gulbarga, and other towns, and the excellent paper of different kinds which is made by the inhabitants of Kaghazpur, near the fortress of Daulatâbâd. Several railway lines pass through the state. The line connecting Bombay with Madras traverses the south-western part; the Great Indian Peninsula Railway runs the line as far as Ratchur, where it is joined by the Madras Railway; and from Wadi the Nizam’s State Railway branches off to Hyderabad and Secunderabad. The three principal roads in the state all pass through Hyderabad city.

No census of the population has been attempted in Hyderabad territory, with the exception of Berar or the Assigned Districts. But the population in the Nizam’s Territory has been estimated at 9,000,000 persons. In the different parts of the territory the Marathi, the Kanarese, and the Telugu languages are spoken. The Marhattas are most numerous in the west. The Musâlmans are chiefly to be met with in the capital, and everywhere in the service of Government. In addition there is a large admixture of Parsis, Sikhs, Arabs, Rohillas, aborigines, and others. The revenue of the Nizam’s Territories, including Berar, may be stated in round numbers at 40,000,000 rupees (say £4,000,000), including receipts from all sources. About two-thirds of the above large sum is collected by the nizâm’s own Government from tracts under British rule. The remaining one-third is realized by British officers, principally from Berar. The native Government has a mint situated at Hyderabad, and a currency of its own. It issues a rupee,—namely, the hali sicca, or “rupee of the period.”

History.— The fortunes of the family of the nizâm were founded by Kamr-ud-din Asaf Jah, a distinguished soldier of the emperor Aurangzeb, who in 1713 was appointed Nizâm-ul·Mulk (Regulator of the State) and Subahdàr of the Deccan, but eventually threw off the control of the Delhi court. Asaf Jah died in 1748, and the right of accession to his power and authority was contested by his descendants. The claimants most favoured were two; the one, Naar Jang, a son of the deceased ruler, secured the support of the English, the other Muzaffar Jang, a grandson, was supported by the French. After a brief period of contest Muzaffar Jang became the prisoner of his rival, who, however, soon perished by the hands of some of his followers, and Muzaffar Jang was proclaimed subahdârof the Deccan. He, too, soon perished in a fray with some Pathan chiefs, so the seat of power was now unoccupied. Two brothers of Nasir Jang now claimed the dignity, but the contest was averted by the sudden death of Ghazi-ud-din, the elder brother. The English and French continued a struggle for power and influence in the Deccan, but the latter had to withdraw from the support of Salabat Jang, through the danger threatening their own possessions from the victories gained by Clive. In 1761 this weak prince was dethroned by his younger brother Nizam Ali, who afterwards put him to death. In 1765 he ravaged the Carnatic, but retired on the approach of a British force. Still the British Government was anxious to be on better terms with him, partly from a desire to obtain his concurrence to their retention of a maritime district known as the Northern Circars, which they now occupied. In 1766 a treaty was concluded by which, on condition of a gift of the Circars, the British Government agreed to support the nizâm, Who on his part engaged to assist the British with his troops. In 1790, on the breaking out of a war with Tippoo, son of Hyder Ali Khân, a treaty of offensive and defensive alliance was concluded between the nizâm, the peshwâ, and the British Government. Tippoo purchased peace (1792) at the price of half his dominions, and the nizâm had no reason to be dissatisfied with his share of the spoil. On the fall of Seringapatam and the death of Tippoo Sultân, the nizâm participated largely in the division of territory, under the treaty of 1799, and his share was increased on the peshwâ’s withdrawal from the treaty. In 1800 the subsidiary force with the nizâm was further augmented, and the pecuniary payment for its maintenance was commuted for a cession of territory. This territory is known to the present time under the title of the Ceded Districts. By the treaty of 1853 the nizâm still retained the full use of the subsidiary force and contingent, but was released from the unlimited obligation of service in time of war; and the contingent ceased to be part of the nizâm’s army, and became an auxiliary force kept up by the British Government for the nizâm’s use. In 1857, when the mutiny had broken out, the state of Hyderabad and the nizâm’s dominions became critical; and an attack, which was repulsed, was made upon the residency. The Hyderabad contingent displayed its loyalty in the field against the rebels. In 1860 a fresh treaty was made by which the territorial acquisitions of the nizâm were increased, a debt of 50 lâkhs of rupees was cancelled, and assigned districts in Berar, making up a gross revenue of 3,200,000 rupees (say £320,000), were taken in trust by the British Government. The nizâm is the principal Mahometan ruler in India, and is entitled to a salute of twenty-one guns.

Hyderabad, the chief city and capital of the above state, is situated in 17° 21' 45" N. lat. and 78° 30' 10" E. long., on the river Musi, and stands at a height of about 1700 feet above sea level. No census of the population has been taken, but it has been estimated at 200,000. The scenery around Hyderabad is wild and picturesque, the country being hilly and dotted with numerous granite peaks and isolated rocks. Approached from the west, the appearance of the city is very striking,—the palace, the mosques, and the magnificent pile of buildings erected for the British residency towering above the outer wall. A large lake, a few miles south of Hyderabad, covering an area of 10,000 acres, supplies the town with water. The palace of the nizâm, the mosques, and the British residency are the principal buildings. The palace has no pretensions to splendour, but is of considerable size. Hyderabad is a great Mahometan stronghold, and contains several mosques. The Jamâ Masjid or “cathedral” mosque, so called after the one at Mecca from which it is designed, is large, and is crowned by minarets of an extraordinary height. In the environs of Hyderabad there are many fine gardens with gorgeous pavilions; that of the nizâm’s minister has long been celebrated for its beauty. One of the most interesting places is the college, or Châr Minar (so called from its four minarets), built upon four grand arches at which the four principal streets of the city meet. Above are several stories of rooms, and formerly each story was devoted to a science. On the north side of the Musi is an extensive suburb known as the Begam or “Princess” bazaar. The British residency is in this quarter, and communication between it and the palace of the nizâm is maintained by a fine bridge. The residency is a very handsome building, and is remarkable as having been raised entirely by native workmen. It stands in ornamental pleasure grounds enclosed by a wall with two gateways. The staircase is the handsomest in India, each step being a single block of the finest granite. The principal private residence in the city is the palace of the Bara Dari, or “Twelve Doors,” which is now occupied by the minister of the nizâm, Sir Sâlar Jang.

History.— Hyderabad was founded in 1589, by Kutab Shah Muhammad Kuli, a descendant of Sultan Kuli Kutab Shah, the founder of the dynasty at Golconda in 1512. Muhammad Kuli removed the seat of government on account of its want of water and consequent unhealthiness, and built a new city on the banks of the Musi river, 7 miles from his former capital. He called it Bhdgnαgαr, “Fortunate City,” from his favourite mistress, Bhagmati; but after her death he named it Hyderabad. The history of Golconda and of Hyderabad after 1589 are almost identical. Soon after establishing himself in his new metropolis, Muhammad Kuli carried on an aggressive war with the neighbouring Hindu râjâs. He extended his conquests south of the Kistna river; the strong fortress of Gandikota was captured; and the town of Cuddapah was sacked. His troops penetrated to the frontiers of Bengal, and Muhammad Kuli defeated the ràjâ of Orissa and subjugated the Northern Circars. In 1603 an ambassador from the king of Persia arrived with a ruby studded crown and other magnificent gifts. When he returned six years afterwards, he was accompanied by an officer of the court of Hyderabad, bearingreturn presents. In 1611 Muhammad Kuli died, after a most prosperous reign of thirty-four years. The principal memorials of this monarch are the palace and gardens of Ilahi Mahal, the Muhammadi gardens, the palace of Nabat Ghat, and the Jama Masjid or “cathedral ’’ mosque. During his reign nearly £3,000,000 was expended on public works, and £24,000 was distributed every year among the poor.

Muhammad Kuli was succeeded by his son, Sultan Abdullah Kutab Shah. Mir Juml<4, the prime minister, whose son had involved him in a dispute with the court, finding himself unable to obtain favour from his own sovereign, determined to throw himself on the protection of the Mughal emperor. Shah Jahan, espousing his cause, issued a mandate to Abdullah to redress the complaints of his minister; but Abdullah was so incensed that he sequestrated Mir Jumla’s property, and committed his son to prison. Shah Jahan now despatched Aurangzeb, his son, to carry his demands into effect by force of arms. Abdullah Kutab Shah was preparing an entertainment for Aurangzeb’s reception, when he suddenly advanced as an enemy, and took the king so completely by surprise that he had only time to flee to the hill-fort of Golconda, whilst Hyderabad fell into the hands of the Mughals, and was plundered and half burned before the troops could be brought into order. Abdullah did all in his power to negotiate reasonable terms, but the Mughals were inexorable, and he was at last forced to accept the severe conditions imposed on him.

Abdullah died in 1672, and was succeeded by his son-in-law Abu Husain, who in his youth had been notorious for dissipated habits. He fell entirely under the influence of a Marhatta Brahman, named Madhuna Panth, who became his prime minister. During this reign Aurangzeb again marched upon the city. The king shut himself in the fort of Golconda, and Hyderabad was again left open to plunder. Madhuna Panth was killed in a popular tumult, and the king accepted such terms as he could obtain. A payment of £2,000,000 sterling in money and jewels was demanded. In 1687 Aurangzeb formally declared war against Abù Husain. The king bravely defended the fort of Golconda, but lost it by treachery, and was sent a captive to Daulatâbâd, where he resided until his death. Abd Husain was a very popular monarch, and many anecdotes of his virtue are still current in the Deccan. Aurangzeb immediately took possession of all the territories of Bijäpur and Golconda, but his occupation was little more than military.

No event of any importance occurred at Hyderabad until 1707, the year of Aurangzeb’s death, when a dispute for the crown took place. His son, Prince Muazim, was victorious, and ascended the throne as Bahadur Shah. After he made a truce with the Mariettas, affairs in the Deccan remained quiet until the end of his reign, in 1712. His death was followed by struggles amongst his sons. A battle ensued; Azim-ush-Shan was slain, and Jalandhar Shah remained master of the throne. Among those he could not get into his power was Farnιkh Siyyar, the only son of Azim-ush-Shan; but the cause of this prince was espoused by the governor of Behar, Sayyid Husain Ali. The rivals met near Agra; and on the 1st January 1713 Farrukh Siyyar ascended the throne, and conferred dignities upon all his adherents. Among these was Chin-Kilich Khan, to whom was given the title of Nizâm-ul-Mulk Asaf Jâh, and Sayyid Husain All was appointed viceroy of the Deccan. In 1719 Husain Alt and Sayyid Abdullah Khan, his brother, advanced upon Delhi, and soon their troops took possession of the royal citadel· and palace. Farrukh Siyyar was deposed, and two months later put to death. The Sayyids now (1719) selected Muhammad Shah, who was the last emperor that sat on the Peacock throne of Shah Jahan. In 1720 Husain All was assassinated, and at the end of the year Abdullah Khan was defeated and taken prisoner by Muhammad Shah; but the power of this monarch was fast declining. In 1722 Chin-Kilich Khan, also called Asaf Jâh, arrived at Delhi, and assumed the office of vizier. In 1723 he resigned his post, and set off for the Deccan, a proceeding amounting to a declaration of independence. The emperor sent orders to Mobariz, the local governor of Hyderabad to assume the government of the entire Deccan. Asaf was forced to come to open war, and soon gained a decisive victory over Mobariz, who lost his life in the battle, fought in October 1724. He then fixed his residence at Hyderabad, and became the founder of an independent kingdom, now ruled over by his descendants, who derive from him the title of the Nizams of Hyderabad state.

HYDERABAD, or Haidarâbâd, a British district in the commissionership of Sind, India, lying between 24° 13' and 27° 15' N. lat., and between 67° 51' and 69° 22' E. long., with an area of 9053 square miles. It is bounded N. by Kairpur state, E. by Thar and Pârkar political superintendency, S. by the same tract and the river Kori, and W. by the river Indus and Karachi district. The district is a vast alluvial plain, 216 miles long and 48 broad. Fertile along the course of the Indus, it degenerates towards the èast into sandy wastes, sparsely populated, and defying cultivation. The monotony is relieved by the fringe of forest which marks the course of the river, and by the avenues of trees that line the irrigation channels which branch eastward from this stream. The south of the district has a special feature in its large natural water-courses (called dhoras) and basin-like shallows (phhausj, which retain the rains for a long time. A limestone range called the Gânga and the pleasant frequency of garden lands break the monotonous landscape. The soil, wherever irrigated, is very fertile. Very few species of the large wild animals are found; among birds, the bustard alone is remarkable. Venomous reptiles abound. The Indus supplies a large variety of fish, one of which, the pala, is peculiar to the river.

Of the total area of the district about one-half is uncultivable; 2,300,000 acres are cultivable though not cultivated, and 566,800 are under irrigation. Agriculture is entirely dependent upon artificial irrigation, and is looked upon as a lottery, in which the cultivator stakes a certain amount of labour and seed, and takes his chance of getting a return. If the water rises either too high or not high enough, he loses his crop. There are 317 canals, fifty of which are main channels, and tap the Indus direct; the remainder are connecting branches. The principal crops are wheat, barley, oil-seeds, pulses, vegetables, jodr, bdjra, til, rice, •cotton, sugar-cane, chana, hemp, tobacco, water-melons, and indigo. The manufactures of the district maintain the excellence for which they have been famous from early times, namely, that for lacquered work, gold and silver embroidery, striped and brilliant cloths known as süsis and rhesis, and glazed pottery. The manufacture of carpets, silk thread, and gold and silver ornaments is carried on to a large extent; salt also is produced in such quantities as to allow of a considerable exportation. The total number of fairs is 33, and the average attendance about 5000. The roads of the district extend to 1925 miles in length, of which 263 are metalled, bridged, and marked with milestones. The ferries number 68; the one at Gidu-Bandar (3⅜ miles from Hyderabad) is a steam ferry connecting Hyderabad with Kotri, on Sind Railway. There are 10 travellers’ bungalows, 16 dharmsdlds, 4 dispensaries, a civil and police hospital, a convict hospital, and a charitable dispensary.

Considerable variations of climate are found within the district. In the north, the hot season of April and May is followed by two months of floods, the rest of the year being cold and dry. In the central divisions, the cold season succeeds the hot without any intervening inundations to graduate the transition; and the change occurs sometimes with such suddenness that, to quote a local saying, “sunstroke and frost-bite are possible in one and the same day.” In the south the temperature is more equable throughout the year, 60° F. and 100° F. representing the extremes. The rainfall is very moderate; and the district is healthy as compared with other parts of India.

The population is divided as follows :—Mahometans, 560,349; Hindus, 118,652; other creedsand tribes, 44,882;—total, 723,883. Of the Mahometans 373,705, or more than three-fifths, are Sinds. More important, however, as regards social status and personal character, are the Pathâns, found chiefly about Hyderabad and Upper Sind; they number ouly 15,815 persons. As regards occupation, the Hindus of the district may be called the shopkeeping class, the Mahometans the artisan and agricultural.

The chief revenue and magisterial authority is vested in a collector and magistrate. He is assisted by the four deputy collectors of Hâla, Tando Muhammad Khan, Naushahro, and Hyderabad taluks, of which the district is composed. The police force is under the charge of a European district superintendent, and comprises a total of 876 men, with 4 inspectors and 19 chief constables. The average land revenue for 6 years (1868-74) was £111,655; drug revenue (1873-74), £5304; receipts from the farming of liquorshops (1873—74), £9640; imperial revenue (1874), £144,944; local revenue (1874), £12,434; forests yield an annual revenue of £11,216. The Government boys’ schools numbered 55 in 1874, with 3227 pupils; the girls’ schools 12, with 368 pupils. These figures include the returns for the high, normal, engineering, and Anglo-vernacular schools in Hyderabad city.

The local history of Hyderabad district is so mixed up with that of the province that little could be said of it separately which will not more properly find a place under the history of Sind. The battles of Miani (Meeanee) and Dabo, which decided the fate of Sind in favour of the British, were fought within its limits.

Hyderabad, the chief town of the above district, in 25° 23' 5" N. lat. and 68° 24' 51" E. long., had in 1872 a population of 35,272, of whom 13,065 were Mahometans, 16,889 Hindus, 367 Christians, and 4951 “others.” The municipal area is about 15 square miles. Upon the site of the present fort is supposed to have stood the ancient town of Nerâukot, which in the 8th century submitted to Muhammad Kâsim Sakifi. Its situation near the apex of the delta of the Indus had commended itself to invaders and conquerors of still earlier date. It is identified with Patala, a town which has been connected with a prehistoric Scythian migration into India (c. 625 b.c. ?). Alexander the Great founded or refounded a city called Patala in or near the same place, 325 b.c., and left in it a military settlement. The best archaeological authorities regard the modern Hyderabad as the representative of this Patala of the Greeks. In 1768 the present city was founded by Gliulâm Shâh Kalhora; and it remained the chief town of the province until 1843, when, after the battle of Meeanee, it was surrendered to the British, and the capital transferred to Kurrachee (Karâchi). The city is built on the most northerly hills of the Gânga range, a site of great natural strength. In the fort, which covers an area of 36 acres, are the arsenal of the province, transferred hither from Kurrachee in 1861, and the residences of the ex mirk of Sind. Hyderabad is the centre of all the provincial communications—road, telegraphic, postal. From the earliest times its manufactures—ornamented silks, silver and gold work, and lacquered ware—have been the chief of the province, and in recent times have gained prizes at the industrial exhibitions of Europe. The chief public institutions and buildings are the jail, Government schools, post-office, municipal markets, court houses, civil and police hospital, charitable dispensary, library, travellers’ bungalow, and lunatic asylum. The barracks— occupied by artillery and infantry, European and native— are built in twelve blocks, with hospitals, bazaar, &c., to the north-west of the city. The only noteworthy antiquities are the tombs of the Kabhora and Tâlpur mirs.