Climate.— Paris enjoys a fairly uniform climate, subject, however, to frequent changes at all seasons of the year. The mean temperature, calculated by Μ. Flammarion from observations extending over seventy-two years (1804-76), is 51 0, 4 Fahr. The highest reading observed (in July 1874, and again in July 1881) is 101° Fahr., the lowest (in December 1879) is - 14°. The monthly means for the sixty-four years 1806-1870 are—January 36 o, 3, February 40 o, l, March 43 o, 5, April 50° ∙2,, May 57 0, 6, June 63°O, July 66° O, August 65° '3, September 60 o- 3, October 52° ∙3, November 43° ∙7, December 38 o, 7. The river freezes when the temperature falls below 18°. It was frozen in nearly its whole extent from Bercy to Auteuil in the winters of 1819-20, 1829-30, 1879-80; and partially in the winters of 1840-41,1853-54,1857-58, and 1870-71. Rain falls, on an average, on 143 days, of which 38 are in winter, 35 in spring, 34 in summer, and 36 in autumn,—the average quantity in a year being 19’68 inches. The driest month is February, the rainiest July,—the rainfall for these months being respectively 0’87 inch and 2Ί5 inches. There are 12 days on which snow falls, 184 on which the sky is covered, 40 with fogs, and 9 with hail. The following figures show the directions of the winds N. 38 days, N.E. 41, E. 24, S.E. 26, S. 53, S.W. 70, W. 67, and N.W. 36, with 10 calm days. Thunderstorms average 13 per annum,—ranging from 6 (in 1823) to 25 τ(J,811). There is comparatively little variation in the barometer. Its mean height is 29’763 inches at a height of 216 feet above sea-level. On the whole the climate is healthy and agreeable, its variations, though frequent, being comparatively slight.

Boundaries.— Since January 1, 1860, the boundaries of Paris have extended to the fortifications built in accordance with the scheme of 1840. The total area thus included is 30 square miles, of which 6 square miles are occupied by the public streets, 458 acres by squares and gardens, 642J acres by the river and canals, and 224 acres by cemeteries. The line of fortifications measures 22⅜ miles. On the right side of the river it presents 68 fronts, and on the left 26, each consisting of a curtain connecting two demi bastions. It is pierced by 56 gates, 9 openings for railways, and 2 openings for the Ourcq and the St Denis canals. Outside of this enceinte are a number of detached forts arranged in two main lines. First come the forts erected previous to 1870 at St Denis, Aubervilliers, Romainville, Noisy, Rosny, Nogent, Vincennes, Ivry, Bicêtre, Montrouge, Vanves, Issy, and Mont Valérien; and next the new forts of Palaiseau, Villeras, Buc, and St Cyr, which protect Versailles, and Marly, St Jamme, and Aigremont, which surround St Germain. On the right side of the Seine are Forts Cormeilles, Domont, Montlignon, Montmorency, Écouen, Stains, Vaujours, Villiers, and Villeneuve St Georges. Between the two lines the Chatillon fort occupies the site of the German batteries which bombarded Paris in 1871.

Boulevards, Streets, and Squares.— The line of the Boulevards from the Madeleine to the Bastille, nearly 3 miles, is one of the busiest and most fashionable in the world; here are the Porte St Denis, the Porte St Martin, most of the large cafés, the Opera-House, and the various theatres distinguished as Le Vaudeville, Les Nouveautés, L’Opéra Comique, Les Variétés, Le Gymnase, La Porte St Martin, La Renaissance, L’Ambigu, Les Folies Dramatiques, Dejazet, Beaumarchais, and Le Cirque. Traffic passes east and west from the Bastille to the Place de la Concorde by Rue St Antoine and Rue de Rivoli. North and south the line of the Boulevard de Strasbourg and the Boulevard de Sébastopol stretches from the station of the Eastern Railway (Gare de ΓEst) to the Seine, and is continued by the Boulevard du Palais in the Cité and the Boulevard St Michel, on the left side of the river, as far as the observatory. The total length is not less than 2∣ miles. On the right side of the river may also be mentioned the Rue Royale; the Malesherbes and Haussmann boulevards, which cross the most elegant quarters of the town; the Avenue de l’Opéra, which unites the Place du Palais Royal with the Place de l’Opéra, and terminates at the main entrance of the Opera; the Rue de la Paix, Rue Auber, and Rue 4 Septembre, which also terminate in the Place de l’Opéra, and are remarkable for their magnificent shops; Rue Lafayette, one of the longest thoroughfares of Paris, traversing the town from the Opera to the end of La Villette; the Boulevard Magenta, from Montmartre to the Place de la République; Rue de Turbigo, from this place to the Halles Centrales. The older streets known as Richelieu, Vivienne, De la Chaussée d’Antin, St Honoré, Montmartre, St Denis, St Martin, are full of shops and offices. The Place de I’Arc de Triomphe de l’Étoile is the centre of twelve avenues stretching out from it like the spokes of a wheel, but not all as yet lined with buildings. On the left side of the river the main thoroughfare is the Boulevard St Germain, from Pont Sully to the Pont de la Concorde, which passes in front of the school of medicine, the Place St Germain des Prés, and the war office. The Rue de Rennes, which extends from St Germain des Prés to the Mont Parnasse Railway station, is to be prolonged as far as the Seine.

The finest of the public squares in Paris are Place de la Concorde; Place de l’Étoile; Place Vendôme, with the column and statue of Napoleon I.; Place du Carrousel, with a small triumphal arch commemorative of the campaign of 1806, which formed the entrance to the palace of the Tuileries, now demolished; Place des Victoires, with the equestrian statue of Louis XIV.; Place des Vosges, formerly Place Royale, with that of Louis XIII.; Place de la Bastille, with the column commemorative of the Revolution of July 1830; Place de la République, with the Republic statue; Place de l’Hôtel de Ville; Place du Châtelet, with a column commemorative of the Italian campaign of 1796; those which take their names from the Bourse, the Palais Royal, and the Opera; Place de Rivoli, with the equestrian statue of Joan of Arc; Place Moncey, adorned with a monument in memory of the defence of Paris in 1814, as Place Denfert, at the opposite extremity of the town, is adorned with a colossal lion symbolizing the defence of 1871. South of the Seine are the Place St Michel, adorned with a monumental fountain, and one of the great centres of traffic in Paris; Place du Panthéon; Place St Sulpice; Place Vauban, behind the dome of the Invalides, and Place du Palais Bourbon, in front of the chamber of deputies. Besides those already mentioned there are monumental fountains in the Places de la Concorde, de la République, and du Châtelet, the Avenue de l’Opéra, and the Place Louvois opposite the national library; and attention must also be called to the Fountain of the Innocents near the markets, which was originally adorned with sculptures by Jean Goujon; the Molière Fountain, in the Rue Richelieu; the Gaillon Fountain; and on the left side of the river the Fountain of Rue de Grenelle.

The, Seine.— The Seine flows for 7 miles (taking five hours) through Paris. As it enters and as it leaves the city it is crossed by a viaduct used by the circular railway and for ordinary traffic; that of Point du Jour has two stories of arches. Two bridges, the Pont des Arts and the Passerelle de Passy, are for foot passengers only; all the others are for carriages as well. The most famous is the Pont Neuf, the two portions of which rest on the extremity of the island called La Cité where the river is at its widest (961 feet). On the embankment below Pont Neuf stands the statue of Henry IV., the people’s king. Between La Cité and the left bank the width of the lesser channel is reduced to 161 feet. The whole river has a width of 532 feet as it enters Paris and of 440 as it leaves it. As it descends it passes under the bridges of Tolbiac, Bercy, and Austerlitz (built of stone), that of Sully (of iron), those of Marie and Louis Philippe between île St Louis and the right bank; that of Les Tournelles between île St Louis and the left bank; that of St Louis between île St Louis and La Cité; and Pont d’Arcole, a very elegant structure connecting La Cité with Place de l’Hôtel de Ville. La Cité besides communicates with the right bank by the bridges of Notre Dame and Au Change; with the left bank by that of the Archevêché, the so-called Pont au Double, the Petit Pont, and Pont St Michel. Below Pont Neuf come the Pont des Arts, Pont du Carrousel (of iron), Pont Royal (a fine stone structure leading to the Tuileries), and those named after Solferino, La Concorde, the Invalides, Alma, Jena, (opposite the Champ de Mars), Passy, and Grenelle.

The houses of Paris nowhere abut directly on the river banks, which in their whole extent from the bridge of Austerlitz to Passy are protected by broad embankments or “quays.” At the foot of these lie several ports for the discharge of goods :—on the right side Bercy for wines, La Râpée for timber, the Port de 1’Arsenal at the mouth of the St Martin Canal, the Port de l’Hôtel de Ville for fruits, and the Port St Nicholas or du Louvre (steamboats for London); on the left bank Port de la Gare for timber, St Bernard for wines, and those named after La Tournelle, the Saints Pères, the Invalides, and Grenelle.

Promenades and Parks.— In the heart of Paris are situated the gardens of the Tuileries (74 acres), laid out in parterres and bosquets, planted with chestnut trees, lindens, and plane trees, and adorned with playing fountains and basins, and numerous statues mostly from the antique. From the terrace along the river side a fine view is to be had over the Seine to the park and palaee of the Trocadéro; and from the terraces along the Place de la Concorde the eye takes in the Place and the Avenue of the Champs Élysées. The gardens of the Luxembourg, i∏ front of the palace occupied by the senate, are rather larger than those of the Tuileries; with less regularity of form they present greater variety of appearance. In the line of the main entrance extends the beautiful Observatory Walk, terminating in a monumental fountain, which is in great part the work of Carpeaux. The Luxembourg conservatories are rich in rare plants; and classes are held in the gardens for the study of gardening, fruit-tree pruning, and bee-keeping. The Jardin des Plantes will be mentioned below in the list of scientific establishments. Besides these three great gardens laid out in the French taste, with straight walks and regular beds, there are several in what the French designate the English style. The finest and most extensive of these, the Buttes-Chaumont Gardens, in the northeast of the city, occupy 62 acres of very irregular ground, which up to 1866 was occupied by plaster-quarries, limekilns, and brick-works. The “buttes” or knolls are now covered with turf, flowers, and shrubbery. Advantage has been taken of the varying relief of the site to form a fine lake and a cascade with picturesque rocks. The Montsouris Park, in the south of the city, 40 acres in extent, also consists of broken ground; in the middle stands the meteorological observatory, built after the model of the Tunisian palace of Bardo, and it also contains a monument in memory of the heroic and unfortunate Flatters expedition. Monceau Park, surrounded by the most aristocratic quarters of modern Paris, is a portion of the old park belonging to King Louis Philippe, and is now the property of the town. The gardens of the Palais Royal are surrounded by arcades and fine shops. There is hardly, it may be further remarked, a district in Paris which has not of recent years its well-planted square kept up at municipal expense on some plot of ground cleared during the improvements. Such arc those named after Tour St Jacques (one of the most graceful monuments of old Paris), the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, the Temple, Montholon, Cluny, &c. There have recently been added the park of the Champs de Mars, and that of the Trocadéro with its fountains and aquarium.

But the real parks of Paris are the Bois de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes, which belong to the city, though situated outside of the fortifications. The former is reached by the wide avenue of the Champs Élysées as far as the Arc de Triomphe, and thence by the avenue of the Bois de Boulogne or that of the Grande Armée. The first of these, with its side walks for foot passengers and equestrians, grass-plots, flower-beds, and elegant buildings with gardens and railings in front, affords a wide and magnificent prospect over the Bois and the hills of St Cloud and Mont Valérien.. The Bois de Boulogne covers an area of 2158 acres, onefourth of which is occupied by turf, one-eighth by roads, and the rest by clumps of trees, sheets of water, or running streams. Here are the two race-courses of Longchamps (flat races) and Auteuil (steeple-chases), and the gardens of the Acclimatization Society, which, with their menageries, conservatories, and aquarium, are largely visited by pleasure-seekers. The Bois de Vincennes, a little larger than the Bois de Boulogne, is similarly adorned with streams, lakes, cascades; and from the Gravelie plateau there is a splendid view over the valleys of the Marne and the Seine. Unfortunately the wood is cut in two by an open space comprising a drill-ground for artillery and infantry, a race-course, and a farm (La Faisanderie) for agricultural experiments. Trees for the public parks and squares are grown in the great municipal nurseries at Auteuil and Bois de Boulogne; and the municipal botanical gardens of La Muette, with thirty-five conservatories covering 1∣ acres, and an equal area under frames, contain magnificent collections of azaleas, palm-trees, and other exotics for ornamenting the public gardens or decorating official apartments on fête days.

Public Buildings, Palaces, &c.—The following are among the public buildings of Paris which have most architectural interest. The palace of the Louvre (see pp. 281, 288), which lies on the right side of the Seine in the heart of the city, consists of a quadrangle with an inner court 394 feet square, two galleries extending westwards from two sides of the quadrangle, and two galleries external and parallel to these, and continued till they meet the side wings of the Tuileries. The east front of the Louvre is 548 feet long and 90 feet high, and the first story is occupied by Perrault’s famous colonnade. Towards the west are those portions of the Tuileries which escaped the fire of 1871, —the connecting galleries and (on the south) the Flora pavilion and (on the north) the Marsan pavilion, which was entirely rebuilt between 1872 and 1877. From Perrault’s colonnade to the Flora pavilion the side facing the quay is 2250 feet long. In the matter of sculpture the south and west sides of the inner court are considered the best parts of the Louvre. On the west side lies the oldest part of the palace, and the principal points in the former arrangement of the building are indicated by the paving of the court. In the middle of each façade there is a pavilion rising above an archway. The western archway, which is surmounted by the clock, leads into Place Napoléon III., which has its centre occupied by a square, and its north and south sides bordered with porticos surmounted by statues of eminent Frenchmen. To the west is the Place du Carrousel. On the south side at the junction of the Louvre and the Tuileries is a gateway with three arches, of which the middle one is crowned with the bronze group by Mercier, “The Genius of the Arts,” erected in 1875. The river-front of the Louvre is in an older and more elegant style than the side facing Rue de Rivoli. It is connected with the buildings of the quadrangle by Henry IV.’s pavilion, which contains in its first story the elegant Apollo gallery.

The Palais de Justice in La Cité presents on the W. side, towards Place Dauphine, a Greek façade by Due (1865-1870), one of the finest productions of modern art. From the Boulevard du Palais on the east it is separated by a magnificent 18th-century railing in wrought iron and gilt. On this side lie the. Salle des Pas Perdus and the Sainte-Chapelle. The fine square tower known as the Clock Tower stands at the corner formed by the Quai du Nord and the Boulevard du Palais; and on the north side lies the Conciergerie prison with the dungeon once occupied by Marie Antoinette. Opposite the Palais de Justice on the other side of the Boulevard is the Tribunal de Commerce with a remarkable staircase under the cupola.

On the left bank of the Seine are the Luxembourg palace, the seat of the senate and formerly the residence of Mary de’ Medici; the Bourbon palace, the seat of the chamber of deputies, fronting the river and Pont de la Concorde with a fine columned portico and pediment; the palace of the Legion of Honour, an exquisite building of Louis XIV.’s time; and the palace of the Institute, with a handsome dome. On the right side of the river lie the Élysée palace (in the Champs-Élysées), a vast building in a modern style, the residence of the president of the republic, and the palace of the Trocadéro, built for the Exhibition of 1878, the central rotunda of which contains the largest music-hall in Paris (for 15,000 auditors) and a colossal organ.

Among the Government and administrative buildings may be mentioned the Hôtel de Ville, burnt in 1871, but rebuilt finer than before on the old site; the ministry of foreign affairs, where the congress of Paris was held in 1856; the ministry of marine, which occupies on Place de la Concorde one of the two pavilions erected by Gabriel on each side of Rue Royale; the ministry of war in the Boulevard St Germain; the Bank, formerly the De la Vrillière “hôtel,” built by Mansard; the Mint, with a fine façade stretching 394 feet along Quai Conti not far from Pont Neuf; the national printing establishment, formerly Cardinal Rohan’s mansion; and the national record office, close at hand, formerly the Soubise mansion. These last two buildings are in the Quartier du Marais, where a great many ancient mansions are now used as warehouses and workshops. Besides the Hôtel Carnavalet and the Hôtel de Cluny may be mentioned the tower of Rue aux Ours, the last remnant of the Hôtel de Bourgogne; the Hôtel de Sens, formerly the residence of the archbishop of the province; the Hôtel Lambert at the head of île St Louis, adorned with paintings by Lesueur; the turret...

The Old Ecclesiastical Parish.— In the absence of evidence to the contrary, the ecclesiastical parish is presumed to be composed of a single township or vill, and to be conterminous with the manor within the ambit of which it is comprised. Before the process of subinfeudation became prevalent, the most ancient manors were the districts which we call by that name when speaking of the tenants, or “townships” when we regard the inhabitants, or “parishes” as to matters ecclesiastical. The parish as an institution is in reality later in date than the township. The latter has been in fact the unit of local administration ever since the country was settled by the English in their several states and kingdoms; the beginnings of the parochial system are attributed to Theodore of Tarsus, who was archbishop of Canterbury towards the close of the 7th century. The system was extended in the reign of Edgar, and it appears not to have been complete until the reign of Edward III. It has been considered that the intimate connexion of church and state militates against the view that the parochial system was founded as a national institution, since any legislation on the subject of the township and parochial systems would probably have resulted in the merging of the one into the other. “The fact that the two systems, the parish and the township, have existed for more than a thousand years side by side, identical in area and administered by the same persons, and yet separate in character and machinery, is a sufficient proof that no legislative Act could have been needed in the first place; nor was there any lay council of the whole nation which could have sanctioned such a measure” (Stubbs, Const. Hist., i. 227). The boundaries of the old ecclesiastical parishes are usually identical with those of the township or townships comprised within its precinct; they are determined by usage, in the absence of charters or records, and are evidenced by perambulations, which formerly took place on the “gang-days” in Rogation week, but are now for the most part held triennially, the Poor-Law Act of 1844 permitting the parish officers to charge the expense on the poor-rate, “provided the perambulations do not occur more than once in three years.” The expense of preserving the boundary by land-marks or bound-stones is chargeable to the same rate. Many parishes contain more than one township, and this is especially the case in the northern counties, where the separate townships are organized for administrative purposes under an Act passed in 1662. In the southern and midland districts the parishes are for the most part subdivided into hamlets or other local divisions known as “tythings,” “boroughs,” and the like; the distinction between a parish and a subordinate district lies chiefly in the fact that the latter will be found to have never had a church or a constable to itself. The select committee of 1873, appointed to inquire into parochial boundaries, reported to the effect that the parish bears no definite relation to any other administrative area, except indeed to the Poor-Law Union. It may be situated in different counties or hundreds, and in many instances it contains, in addition to its principal district, several outlying portions intermixed with the lands in other parishes. Since the abolition of compulsory church rates in 1868 (subject to certain exceptions as to rates which had already been mortgaged), the old ecclesiastical parish has ceased to be of importance as an instrument of local government. Its officers, however, have still important duties to perform. The rector, vicar, or incumbent is a corporation-sole, in whom is vested the freehold of the church and churchyard, subject to the parishioners’ rights of user; their rights of burial have been enlarged by the Burial Laws Amendment Act, 1880, and an Act passed in 1882 to regulate the interment of suicides. The churchwardens are the principal lay officers. Their duties consist in keeping the church and churchyard in repair and in raising a voluntary rate for the purpose to the best of their power; they have also the duty of keeping order in church during divine service; and by Acts passed in 1860 and 1877 they are required to furnish annual accounts to the Local Government Board. The other officials are the parish-clerk and sexton. They have freeholds in their offices, and are paid by customary fees. The office of the clerk is regulated by an Act of 1844, enabling a curate to undertake its duties, and providing facilities for vacating the office in case of misconduct. It is said that the only civil function of the parish-clerk now remaining is to undertake the custody of maps and documents, which may be deposited under the provisions of the Railway Clauses Act, 1845.

The· New Ecclesiastical Parish.— Under the powers given by the Church Building Acts, many populous parishes have been subdivided into smaller ecclesiastical parishes. This division has not affected the parish in its civil aspect (Chalmers, Local Government, 39). The change has helped to increase the distinction between the ecclesiastical and civil parishes. Mr Chalmers estimates that there are now about 15,000 civil and 13,000 ecclesiastical parishes in England, and that in 1871 not more than 10,000 civil parishes coincided with the ecclesiastical districts of the same names.

The Poor-Law Parish.— For the purposes of civil government the term “parish” means a district for which a separate poor-rate is or can be made, or for which a separate overseer is or can be appointed; and by the Poor Law Amendment Act, 1866, this definition is to be used in interpreting all statutes except where the context is inconsistent therewith. This district may of itself constitute a poor law union; but in the great majority of cases the unions, or areas under the jurisdiction of boards of guardians according to the Poor-Law Amendment Act of 1834, are made up of aggregated poor-law parishes. Each of these poor-law parishes may represent the extent of an old ecclesiastical parish, or a township separately rated by custom before the practice was stayed in 1819 or separated from a large parish under the Act of 1662, or it may represent a chapelry, tything, borough, ward, quarter, or hamlet, or other subdivision of the ancient parish, or an area formed by the merger of an extra-parochial place with an adjoining district under the Acts of 1857 and 1869, or by the union of detached portions with adjoining parishes under the Acts of 1876 and 1879, or by the subdivision of a large parish for the better administration of the relief of the poor under the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1867 and the Local Government Board Act of 1871. The civil importance of the poor-law parishes may be dated from the introduction of the poor law by the statute of 43 Elizabeth, which directed overseers of the poor to be appointed in every parish, and made the churchwardens into ex officio overseers. The statute was preceded by tentative provisions of the same kind enacted in the reigns of Edward the VI. and Mary and in the fifth year of Elizabeth, and after several renewals was made perpetual in the reign of Charles L The chief part of the parochial organization is the vestry-meeting. It derives its name from the old place of assembly, which in parishes exceeding two thousand in population may now be replaced by a vestryhail. The vestry represents the old assembly of the township, and retains so much of its business as has not been insensibly transferred to the court-baron and court-leet. The freemen, now appearing as the ratepayers, elect the “parish officers,” as the churchwardens and way-wardens, the assessors, the overseers, and (if required) paid assistantoverseers, a secretary or vestry-clerk, and a collector of rates if the guardians apply for his appointment. A meeting for the election of guardians is held in April every year, subject to the rules laid down by the Local Government Board as to the number of guardians for each parish, and the union of parishes for voting purposes. In case of a contest the election is conducted under Sturges Bourne’s Act. Common vestries are meetings of all the ratepayers assembled on a three days’ notice; the minister of the ecclesiastical parish is chairman, if present; the meeting acts by show of hands unless a poll is demanded; if demanded, the poll is conducted by plural voting according to payment of rates. Select vestries are regulated by the local custom, or may derive their power from Hobhouse’s Act passed in 1831, now repealed in the Metropolitan District, and not much used elsewhere. The functions of the vestry, apart from elections, are practically confined to the management of the property of the parish. The vestry, however, has power to adopt the Free Libraries Act, or the Lighting and Watching Act of 1833, and may appoint a new burial board if a new burial-ground is required; but with these exceptions, most of its active powers and duties have now been taken away by the Acts relating to the poor laws and public health.

The Land-Tax Parish.— The parishes or places separately assessed for land tax form another class. They are described in the series of land-tax accounts from 1692 to the present time, and are also defined in the Taxes Management Act of 1880.

The Burial Acts Parish.— The Burial Acts from 1852 to 1875 deal with areas which are treated as parishes, for the purposes of those Acts, but which have no necessary connexion with the boundaries of the civil and ecclesiastical districts known as parishes in the ordinary sense of the term.

The Highway Parish.— The word “parish” is used in a very wide and vague manner in the Highway Acts. It includes any civil district less than the county, such as wapentakes, hundreds, cities, liberties, or franchises, as well as subdivisions of the ordinary parish, such as townships and hamlets, if by reason of tenure or custom or otherwise such larger or smaller district either maintains its own highways or would do so if it were not included in a highway district composed of several highway parishes or in an urban sanitary district. The constitution of the highway parish is discussed in the Report of the Lords' Committee on Highways. (c. I. E.) The Parish in Scotland.— There can be little doubt that about the beginning of the 13th century the whole, or almost the whole, of the kingdom of Scotland was parochially divided. It seems probable (though the point is obscure) that the bishops presided at the first formation of the parishes—the parish being a subdivision of the diocese—and at any rate down to the date of the Reformation they exercised the power of creating new parishes within their respective dioceses (Duncan, Parochial Law, p. 4). After the Reformation the power of altering parishes was assumed by the legislature. The existing parochial districts being found unsuited to the ecclesiastical requirements of the time, a general Act was passed in 1581, which made provision for the parochial clergy, and, inter alia, directed that “a sufficient and competent” district should be appropriated to each church as a parish (1581, cap. 100). Thereafter, by a series of special Acts in the first place, and, subsequent to the year 1617, by the decrees of parliamentary commissions, the creation of suitable parochial districts was proceeded with. The powers conferred on the parliamentary commissions embraced what are technically known as (1) the disjunction and erection of parishes, (2) the union of parishes, and (3) the disjunction and annexation of parishes. In altering and defining parochial areas in those several ways, the object which the commissioners had in view was to provide for the spiritual wants of particular districts of the country, and to procure from the lands in the parish a proper stipend for the clergy. In the year 1707 the powers exercised by these commissioners were permanently transferred to the Court of Session, whose judges were appointed to act in future as “Commissioners for the Plantation of Kirks and Valuation of Teinds” (Act, 1707, cap. 9). Under this statute the areas of parishes continued to be altered and defined down to 1844, when the Act commonly known as Graham’s Act was passed, (7 & 8 Vict. c. 44). This Act, which applies to the disjunction and erection of parishes, introduced a simpler form of procedure, and to some extent dispensed with the consent of the heritors, which had been required under the earlier statute. Since 1844 proceedings for disjunction and erection of parishes have been taken under it.

The main division of parishes iu Scotland as they now exist is into civil and ecclesiastical, or, to speak more accurately, into parishes proper (i.e., for all purposes, civil and ecclesiastical) and ecclesiastical parishes. This division is expressed in legal language by the terms, parishes quoad omnia (i.e., quoad civilia et sacra) and parishes quoad sacra— civilia being such matters as church rates, education, poor law, and sanitary purposes, and sacra being such as concern the administration of church ordinances, and fall under the cognizance of the church courts. There are other minor divisions which will be noticed below. (1) The Parish Proper.— In a number of instances it is difficult to determine the exact areas of such parishes at the present day. The boundaries of the old ecclesiastical parish were nowhere recorded, and the descriptions in the titles of private properties which appear to lie in the parish have sometimes to be taken as evidence, and sometimes the fact that the inhabitants attended a particular church or made payments in favour of a particular minister. Where there has been a union or disjunction and erection of parishes the evidence of the boundaries is the relative statute, order in council, or decree of commission or of Court of Teinds. The total number of parishes proper in Scotland is eight hundred and eighty-six, and they vary to a great degree both in size and population. For ecclesiastical purposes, the minister and kirk-session constitute the parochial authority. The minister is vested with the manse and glebe, to be held by him for himself and his successors in office, and along with the kirk-session he administers church ordinances and exercises church discipline. For purposes of local government, on the other hand, the Scottish parish, unlike that of England, has been largely utilized by modern legislation. The oldest governing authority is the meeting of the heritors or landowners of the parish. Though shorn of much of its old importance, the heritors’ meeting has still the power of imposing an assessment for the purpose of providing and maintaining a church and churchyard and a manse and glebe for the minister. It also possesses power to assess under the Parochial Buildings Acts of 1862 and 1866. In a certain number of parishes also, which have not adopted a parochial board under the Poor-Law Act, 1845, the heritors along with the kirk-session provide for the relief of the poor, and administer the funds legally destined for that purpose. In the great majority, however, of civil parishes the chief governing authority is the parochial board, which in non-burghal parishes is composed of owners of land of £20 annual value and upwards, and representatives of the kirk-session and of the magistrates of any burgh within the parish and of the rate-payers—the number of representative members being in each case fixed by the Board of Supervision. Another local authority of great importance is the school board, created by the recent Education Acts. Speaking generally, the matters administered in the civil parish are poor relief, education, public health, burial, registration, and church rates. (2) Quoad Sacra Parishes.— The ecclesiastical or quoad sacra parish is a modem creation. Under Graham’s Act, above mentioned, a parish may be disjoined and erected quoad sacra tantum on the application of persons who have built and endowed a church, and who offer securities for its proper maintenance. The creation is made purely on a consideration of the spiritual interests of a particular district, and not for any purposes of civil administration. By the Education Act of 1872, however, the quoad sacra parish has been adopted as a separate school district. There are three hundred and twenty-five such parishes in Scotland. (3) Extra-Burghal Parishes. — For sanitary purposes, highways, and some others, certain classes of burghs have been made separate areas from the parishes in which they lie. This fact creates a set of incomplete parishes, which are called extra-burghal. (4) Burghal, Landward, and Burghal-Landward (or Mixed) Parishes. — This division of parishes depends, as the names imply, upon local character and situation of the parochial districts. The importance of the distinction arises in connexion with the rule of assessment which is to be adopted for various parochial burdens, and the nature of the rights of the minister and corresponding obligations of the parishioners. (5) Combined Parishes.— Under the Poor-Law, Education, and Registration Acts power is given to the central authority to combine parishes for purposes of local administration.

The Parish in the United States. — The term “parish” is not in use as a territorial designation except in Louisiana, the fifty-eight parishes of which correspond to the counties of the other States of the Union.

The principal records from which information may be gained as to the oldest parochial system in England are the records called Nomina Villarum, the Taxatio Papte Nicholai made in 1291, the Nonarum Inquisitiones relating to assessments made upon the clergy, the Valor Ecclesiasticus of Henry VIΠ., the lay subsidies from the reign of Edward III. to that of Charles II., the hearth-tax assessments, and the land-tax accounts. On the subject of the parish generally the reader should consult Stubbs’s Constitutional History, Glen’s Parish Law, Toulmin Smith's work on the Parish, Holdsworth’s Handy Book of Parish Law, and Μ. D. Chalmers’s work on Local Government, published in the English Citizen Series. For fuller information regarding the Scottish parish the following works may be consulted :—Connell on Teinds ; Duncan’s Parochial Ecc’esiastical Law·, the Cobden Club essays on Local Government and Taxation in the United Kingdom, published in 1882; Goudy and Smith’s Local Government in Scotland.