Until after the conquest of Greece the Romans do not appear to have known much of veterinary medicine. Varro (116-28 b.c.) may be considered the first Roman writer who deals with animal medicine in a scientific spirit, in his De Re Rustica, in three books, which is largely derived from Greek writers. Celsus is supposed to have written on animal medicine; and Columella (1st century) is credited with having utilized those relating to veterinary science in the sixth and seventh parts of his De Re Rustica, one of the best works of its class of ancient times: it treats, not only of medicine and surgery, but also of sanitary measures for the suppression of contagious diseases. From the 3d century onwards veterinary science had a literature of its own and regular practitioners, especially in the service of the Roman armies (mulomedici, veterinarii). Perhaps the most renowned veterinarian of the Roman empire was Apsyrtus of Bithynia, who in 322 accompanied the expedition of Constantine against the Sarmatians in his professional capacity, and seems to have enjoyed a high and well-deserved reputation in his time. He was a keen observer; he distinguished and described a number of diseases which were badly defined by his predecessors, recognized the contagious nature of several maladies, and prescribed isolation for their suppression; he also made interesting observations on accidents and diseases of horses’ limbs, and waged war against certain absurd empirical practices then prevailing in the treatment of disease, indicating rational methods, some of which are still successfully employed in veterinary therapeutics, such as splints for fractures, sutures for wounds, cold water for the reduction of prolapsed vagina, hot baths for tetanus, &c. Not less eminent was Hierocles, the successor of Apsyrtus, whose writings he largely copied, but with improvements and valuable additions, especially in the hygiene and training of horses. Pelagonius again was a writer of empirical tendency, and his treatment of disease in general was most irrational. Publius Vegetius (not to be confounded with Flavius Vegetius Renatus, who wrote on the military art) was a popular author of the end of the 5th century, though less distinguished than Apsyrtus, to whom and to Pelagonius he was to a great extent indebted in the preparation of his Mulomedicina sive Ars Veterinaria. He appears to have been more of a horse-dealer than a veterinary practitioner, and knew next to nothing of anatomy, which seems to have been but little cultivated at that period. He was very superstitious and a believer in the influence of demons and sorcerers; nevertheless he gives some interesting observations derived from his travels. He had also a good idea of aerial infection, recognized the utility of disinfectants, and describes some operations not referred to by previous writers, such as removal of calculi from the bladder through the rectum, couching for cataract, the extirpation of certain glands, and several serious operations on the horse’s foot. Though inferior to several works written by his predecessors, the Mulomedicina of Vegetius maintained its popularity through many centuries. Of most of the ancient veterinary writers we know little beyond what can be gathered from the citations and extracts in the two great collections of Hippiatrica and Geoponica compiled by order of Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the 10th century.

It is unnecessary to dwell here on the progress of the veterinary art during the Middle Ages. Towards the close of the mediaeval period the subject was much cultivated in the cavalry schools of Italy; and Spain also had an organized system of good practitioners in the 15th century, who have left many books still extant. Germany was far behind, and literature on the subject did not exist until the end of the 15th century, when in 1492 there was published anonymously at Augsburg a Pferdearzneibüchlein. In the following century the influence of the Italian writers was becoming manifest, and the works of Fugger and Fayser mark the commencement of a new era. Fayser’s treatises, Von der Gestüterei and Von der Zucht der Kriegsund Bürger-Pferde (1529-1597), are remarkable for originality and good sense. In Great Britain animal medicine was perhaps in a more advanced condition than in Germany, if we accept the evidence of the Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales (London, 1841); yet it was largely made up of the grossest superstitions. Among the Celts the healer of horse diseases and the shoer were held in high esteem, as among the more civilized nations of Europe, and the court farrier enjoyed special privileges. The earliest known works in English appeared anonymously towards the commencement of the 16th century, namely, Propertees and Medcynes for a Horse and Mascal of Oxen, Horses, Sheepes, Hogges, Dogges. The word “mascal” shows that the latter work was in its origin Italian. There is no doubt that in the 15th century the increasing taste for horses and horsemanship brought Italian riding-masters and farriers into England; and it is recorded that Henry VIII. brought over two of these men who had been trained by Grisone in the famous Neapolitan school. The knowledge so introduced became popularized, and assumed a concrete form in Blundeville’s Foure Chiefest Offices belonging to Horsemanship (1566), which contains many references to horse diseases, and, though mainly a compilation, is yet enriched with original observations. In the 15th century the anatomy of the domesticated animals, formerly almost entirely neglected, began to receive attention. A work on comparative anatomy by Volcher Koyter was issued at Nuremberg in 1573; about the same time a writer in Germany named Copho or Cophon published a book on the anatomy of the pig, in which were many original remarks on the lymphatic vessels; and Jehan Hervard in France produced in 1594 his rather incomplete Hippo-Ostéologie. But by far the most notable work, and one which maintained its popularity for a century and a half, was that of Carlo Ruini, a senator of Bologna, published in 1598 in that city, and entitled Dell' Anatomia e dell' Infirmità del Cavallo, e suoi Remedii. Passing through many editions, and translated into French and German, this book was for the most part original, and a remarkable one for the time in which it was composed, the anatomical portion being especially praiseworthy. English books of the 17th century exhibit a strong tendency towards the improvement of veterinary medicine and surgery, especially as regards the horse. This is even more notable in the writings of the 18th century, among which may be particularized Gibson’s Farrier's New Guide (1719), Method of Dieting Horses (1721), and (best of all) his New Treatise on the Diseases of Horses, besides Braken’s, Burdon’s, Bridge’s, and Bartlet’s treatises. Veterinary anatomy was greatly advanced by the Anatomy of an Horse (1683) of Snape, farrier to Charles II., illustrated with copperplates, and by the still more complete and original work of Stubbs, the Anatomy of the Horse (1766), which decidedly marked a new era in this line of study. Of foreign works it may suffice to mention that of Solleysel, Veritable Parfait Maréschal (1664), which passed through many editions, was translated into several languages, and was borrowed from for more than a century by different writers. Sir W. Hope’s Compleat Horseman (1696) is a translation from Solleysel by a pupil.

Modern Schools and Colleges.

The most important era in the history of modern veterinary science commenced with the institution of veterinary schools. France was the first to take the great initiative step in this direction. Buffon had recommended the formation of veterinary schools, but his recommendations were not attended to. Bourgelat, an advocate at Lyons and a talented hippologist, through his influence with Bertin, prime minister under Louis XV., was the first to induce the Government to establish a veterinary school and school of equitation at Lyons, in 1761. This school he himself directed for only a few years, during which the great benefits that had resulted from it justified an extension of its teaching to other parts of France. Bourgelat, therefore, founded (1766) at Alfort, near Paris, a second veterinary school, which soon became, and has remained to this day, one of the finest and most advanced veterinary schools in the world. At Lyons he was replaced by the Abbé Rozier, a learned agriculturist, who was killed at the siege of Lyons after a very successful period of school management, during which he had added largely to agricultural and physical knowledge by the publication of his Journal de Physique and Cours d'Agriculture. Twenty years later the Alfort school added to its teaching staff several distinguished professors whose names still adorn the annals of science, such as Daubenton, who taught rural economy; Vic d’Azyr, who lectured on comparative anatomy; Fourcroy, who undertook instruction in chemistry; and Gilbert, one of its most brilliant pupils, who had veterinary medicine and surgery for his department. The last-named was also a distinguished agriculturist and published many important treatises on agricultural as well as veterinary subjects. The position he had acquired, added to his profound and varied knowledge, made him most useful to France during the period of the Revolution. It is chiefly to him that it is indebted for the celebrated Rambouillet flock of Merino sheep, for the conservation of the Tuileries and Versailles parks, and for the creation of the fine experimental agricultural establishment organized in the ancient domain of Sceaux. The Alfort school speedily became the nursery of veterinary science, and the source whence all similar institutions obtained their first teachers and their guidance. A third Government school was at a later period founded at Toulouse; and these three schools have produced thousands of thoroughly educated veterinary surgeons and many professors of high scientific repute, among whom may be named Bouley, Chauveau, Colin, Toussaint, St Cyr, Goubaux, Arloing, and Galtier.

Soon after the Alfort school was commenced a national school for Austria was established at Vienna by order of Maria Theresa; and this, remodelled and reorganized by Joseph II., is now the largest in the country. Prussia quickly followed suit; and soon Government veterinary schools were founded in almost every other European country, except Great Britain, mostly on a munificent scale. Probably all, but especially those of France and Germany, were established as much with a view to training veterinary surgeons for the army as for the requirements of civil life.

In 1790 St Bel (whose real name was Vial, St Bel being a village near Lyons, where was his paternal estate), after studying at the Lyons school and teaching both at Alfort and Lyons, came to England and published proposals for founding a school in which to instruct pupils in veterinary medicine and surgery. The Agricultural Society of Odiham, which had been meditating sending two young men to the Alfort school, elected him an honorary member, and delegated a committee to consult with him respecting his scheme. Some time afterwards this committee detached themselves from the Odiham Society and formed an institution styled the Veterinary College of London, of which St Bel was appointed professor. The school was to be commenced and maintained by private subscription. In March 1792 arrangements were made for building temporary stabling for fifty horses and a forge for shoeing at St Pancras. The college made rapid progress in public estimation, notwithstanding considerable pecuniary embarrassments. As soon as the building was ready for the reception of animal patients, pupils began to be enrolled; and among the earliest were some who afterwards gained celebrity as veterinarians, as Bloxam, Blaine, R. Lawrence, Field, and Bracy Clark. On the death of St Bel in August 1793 there appears to have been some difficulty in procuring a suitable successor; but at length, on the recommendation of John Hunter and Cline, two medical men were appointed, Coleman and Moorcroft, the latter then practising as a veterinary surgeon in London. The first taught anatomy and physiology, and Moorcroft, after visiting the French schools, directed the practical portion of the teaching. Unfortunately, neither of these teachers had much experience among animals, nor were they well acquainted with their diseases; but Coleman had as a student, in conjunction with a fellow-student (afterwards Sir Astley Cooper), performed many experiments on animals under the direction of Cline. Moorcroft, who remained only a short time at the college, afterwards went to India and during a journey in 1819 was murdered in Tibet. Coleman, by his scientific researches and energetic management, in a few years raised the college to a high standard of usefulness; under his care the progress of the veterinary art was such as to qualify its practitioners to hold commissions in the army; and he himself was appointed veterinary surgeon-general to the British cavalry. Owing to the lack of funds, the teaching at the college must have been very meagre, and, had it not been for the liberality of several medical men in throwing open the doors of their theatres to its pupils for instruction without fee or reward, their professional knowledge would have been sadly deficient. The board of examiners was for many years chiefly composed of eminent members of the medical profession. Coleman died in 1839, and with him disappeared much of the interest the medical profession of London took in the progress of veterinary medicine. Yet the Royal Veterinary College (first styled “Royal” during the presidentship of the duke of Kent) continued to do good work in a purely veterinary direction, and received such public financial support that it was soon able to dispense with the small annual grant given to it by the Government. In the early years of the institution the horse was the only animal to which much attention was given. But at the instigation of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, which gave £200 per annum for the purpose, an additional professor was appointed to investigate and teach the treatment of the diseases of cattle, sheep, and other animals; outbreaks of disease among these were also to be inquired into by the officers of the college. This help to the institution was withdrawn in 1875, but renewed in 1886.

This veterinary school has been the parent of other schools in Great Britain, one of which, the first in Scotland, was founded by Prof. Dick, a student of Coleman’s and a man of great perseverance and ability. Commencing at Edinburgh in 1819-20 with only one student, in three years he gained the patronage of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, which placed a small sum of money at the disposal of a committee appointed by itself to take charge of a department of veterinary surgery it had formed. This patronage, and very much in the way of material assistance and encouragement, were continued to the time of Dick’s death in 1866. During the long period in which he presided over the school, considerable progress was made in diffusing a sound knowledge of veterinary medicine in Scotland and beyond it. For many years his examining board, which gave certificates of proficiency under the auspices of the Highland and Agricultural Society, was composed of the most distinguished medical men in Scotland, such as Goodsir, Syme, Lizars, Ballingall, Simpson, and Knox. By his will Dick vested the college in the lord provost and town council of Edinburgh as trustees, and left a large portion of the fortune he had made to maintain it for the purposes for which it was founded. In recent years another veterinary school has been established in Edinburgh, and one in Glasgow, both of which are doing good service.

In 1844 the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons (to be carefully distinguished from the Royal Veterinary College) obtained its charter of incorporation. The functions of this body were, until a recent date, limited almost entirely to examining students taught in the veterinary schools, and bestowing diplomas of membership on those who successfully passed the examinations conducted by the boards which sat in London and Edinburgh. Soon after the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons obtained its charter of incorporation a difference arose between it and Dick, which resulted in the latter seceding altogether from the union that had been established and forming an independent examining board, the Highland and Agricultural Society granting certificates of proficiency to those students who were deemed competent. This schism operated very injuriously on the progress of veterinary education and on professional advancement, as the competition engendered was of a rather deteriorating nature. After the death of Dick the dualism in veterinary licensing was suppressed: the Highland Society ceased to give certificates and the only mode of admission to the profession was through the Royal College. Since then the subjects taught have been increased in number; conformably with the requirements of ever-extending science, the period of study has been enlarged so as to be nearly as long as that imposed upon medical students; the teaching is more thorough and practical; and the examinations are more frequent and searching. Candidates for admission to the schools must also give evidence of having received a good general education. Also since the suppression of the dual system an Act of Parliament has been obtained protecting the title of the graduates of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, and conferring other advantages, not the least of which is the power granted to the college to remove the names of unworthy members from its register. In some respects the Veterinary Surgeons Act is superior to the Medical Act, while it places the profession on the same level as other learned bodies, and prevents the public being imposed upon by empirics and impostors. The college has instituted a higher degree, that of fellow, which can only be obtained after the graduate has been five years in practice and by passing a severe examination. Fellows only can be members of council or members of the examining boards. The graduates of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons who have been registered since its foundation in 1844 probably number 4000. In the British army there is a smaller mortality among the animals employed, and less loss from contagious diseases than in any other in Europe; this result, as well as the high efficiency of the horses, is largely due to the zeal, intelligence, and natural aptitude of the veterinary officers for their special duties. In no other army are they so severely tested, physically and professionally,—more than one-half of their service being foreign; and in India their skill has to be exercised on elephants, camels, bullocks, cattle, and sheep, in addition to horses. During war the strain on army veterinary surgeons is very heavy; and, while surgeons are protected in the field by the Geneva Red Cross, being considered as non-belligerents, veterinary officers are regarded as combatants, and therefore run the risk of capture, imprisonment, or death at the hands of the enemy.

In India there are one or more veterinary schools in each presidency, in which natives are trained as veterinary surgeons. The need for this will be perceived when it is stated that the loss in India from preventible animal diseases alone amounts to at least £6,000,000 annually.

In the United States of America veterinary science has been an exotic of very slow growth. There are veterinary schools in New York, Minneapolis, and elsewhere, but these, like those in Great Britain, are private institutions. To the Cornell, Pennsylvania, and Harvard universities veterinary schools or chairs have been attached with competent teachers. Events are at present rapidly compelling the people of the United States to realize the true value and importance of veterinary science. For many years the “lung plague” has been gradually extending itself westward, and it is now causing heavy losses. Long exempted from the more serious of the contagious diseases of animals which have scourged Europe,...