The terms “ship” and “vessel” are here intended to embrace all classes, though “ship” is generally applied to the larger without reference to form or description unless such is specified. Though the use of sails has been greatly superseded by the introduction of steam-power both in the navies of all nations and in the mercantile marine, it is still generally admitted that seamanship is best acquired on board a vessel which is dependent upon her sails. The construction and equipment of sailing ships had reached a high point of perfection at the time steam came into general use. The power derived from the steam-engine does not change any of the former conditions, but simply adds another element, confined to propulsion directly ahead or astern (except with reversible wheels or twin screws), which when combined with sails renders a ship much more manageable and safe,—that is to say, assuming all the forces at command to be properly applied. Hence it is very desirable that all ocean-going steam vessels should have sufficient sail-power to turn them round (wear) or to enable them to sail with the wind abeam without steam, especially when fitted with single screws or with paddle wheels which do not work separately. Twin screws, of course, give a double chance as far as the engine is concerned; but even with that advantage the loss of the rudder would leave the ship in a helpless condition if she had not efficient head and after sails to balance her on the desired course.

At present the excessive desire to make quick passages has greatly augmented the danger unavoidably attending a sea voyage, the risk as well as the violence of a collision at high speed in thick weather being thereby much increased. Through the want of masts and sails there is a probability of total loss by drifting helplessly on a lee shore during a gale, or by foundering “in the trough of the sea.” In spite of her monstrous size (22,000 tons), the “Great Eastern,” in 1863 or 1864, with her six comparatively small masts and weak sails was, after the loss of her rudder, very roughly used by the waves striking her full on the side. She was in the position which is expressed by the common sea-phrase “wallowing in the trough of the sea,” from which her crew had no power to extricate her. A smaller vessel deeply laden in such a position would most probably have foundered, leaving no one to tell the tale. Too much stress is laid upon the retardation caused by masts and rigging when steaming head to wind; it is the pitching and plunging motion of the ship into a succession of waves that principally retards her speed. If the waves are approaching at the rate of 10 miles an hour and the ship is steaming against them at a similar rate, they will strike the bows with a force equal to 20 miles an hour. When a ship is steaming through comparatively smooth water (sheltered by land) against a gale of wind, her speed is but little reduced by the force of the wind alone, when other circumstances admit of her working full power. Storm-sails only require short masts, but these and the canvas they support should be strong, which is not the case in the merchant service generally.

Every seaman is expected to be thoroughly acquainted with the rigging of the vessel in which he serves, and when in charge he should frequently examine every part, to see that it is efficiently performing the duty assigned to it, being neither too taut nor too slack, nor suffering from chafing, wet, or other injury. He should be capable of repairing or replacing any part with his own hand if necessary and of teaching others how to do so. He need not necessarily be a navigator, though a good navigator must be a seaman; nor is it necessary that a seaman should be a shipbuilder, a mast-maker, a rope-maker, or a sail-maker, but he should possess a general knowledge of each art, especially the last; every able seaman should be able to sew a seam and assist the ship’s sail-maker in repairing sails. It is greatly to be regretted that various circumstances have brought about such a change in the system of rigging ships, in both the British navy and the mercantile marine, that those who sail in them seldom see it done. Young officers were in former times frequently entrusted with the charge of day watches, during which they would give the necessary orders for making, shortening, or trimming sails, perhaps even tacking and wearing. That practice gave confidence and quickened the desire to learn more; it was more frequently done in small than in large ships. The general adoption of the steam-engine in ships has not only diminished the value of sail-power but of seamanship also, and has produced such a change in the rig that instead of masts and yards we find only two or three poles. In the British navy so many new sciences have been introduced that seamanship takes but a low place among them at the examination of a midshipman, who has had but little boat duty and probably found the discussion of seamanship in his mess-place contrary to rule. The rapidity with which all sail and mast drill is executed, combined with the perfection of the “station bill,” renders it worse than useless as a means of teaching, as it gives a false confidence which fails in the hour of necessity, when the accustomed routine is thrown out by a sail actually splitting to pieces or a spar snapping. The fact that the same men perpetually do the same thing must tend greatly to render each evolution quick so long as every one is in his accustomed place, but sickness or the absence of a party from duty will disorganize the ship for some time, as the general usefulness of the men has been cramped. Sail drill in harbour is open to grave objections: unless in a tide-way, the ship must be invariably head to wind; for reefing and furling the yards are laid square, consequently flat aback; both earings are hauled out at once, and as it is only for exercise they are only half secured. Even when reefing top-sails at sea either for exercise or of necessity in company with other ships, the yards are laid square to enable the men to get readily on the weather-side; therefore, if on a wind, the sail must remain aback or the ship must be kept away till the wind is on the beam in order to shake the sail.

The foundation of all teaching of seamanship must be a knowledge of the knots, bends, and splices, and their use in the various parts of the rigging and equipment of a ship. Some knots, bends, and hitches are intended to afford security as long as desired, and then to be easily disengaged. Other knots, splices, and seizings are of a more permanent character, generally continuing as long as the rope will last.

Overhand Knot.— Used at the end of ropes to prevent their unreeving and as the commencement of other knots. Fig. 1 represents an overhand knot hauled tight; for an illustration of the same not hauled tight see Knot, vol. xiv. p. 128, fig. 7.

Figure-Of-Eight Knot (fig. 2).—Used only to prevent ropes from unreeving; it forms a large knob.

Reef Knot(see Knot, lοc. cit., figs. 8 and 9).—First form an overhand knot; then take the end a over the end b and through the bight. This knot is so named from being used in tying the reef points of a sail, since it will not jam. If the end a were taken under the end b, a granny’s knot would be formed.

Bowline Knot.— Lay the end of a rope a over the standing part b; form with b a bight c over a; take a round behind b and down through the bight c . This is a very useful knot, forming a loop which will not slip. Running bowlines are formed by making a bowline round its own standing part above b. It is the most common and convenient temporary running noose. See Knot, l.c., figs. 11 and 12.

Bowline on a Bight (figs. 3, 4).—The first part is made similar to the above with the double part of the rope; then the bight a is pulled through sufficiently to allow it to be bent over past d and come up in the position shown in fig. 4. It makes a more comfortable sling for a man than a single bight.

Half Hitch.— Pass the end around the standing part b and through the bight. This hitch by itself round a large object would not hold and round a small one would jam excessively. See Knot, l.c., fig. 13.

Two Half-Hitches (fig. 5).—The half-hitch repeated; this is commonly used, and is capable of resisting to the full strength of the rope. A stop from a to the standing part will prevent it jamming.

Clove Hitch.— Pass the end a round a spar or rope and cross it over b , its standing part; pass it round again and put the end a through the second bight. This hitch is generally used at right angles to the object and is improved by adding a half-hitch with the end a round b . When pulled in a line with the spar it becomes simply two half-hitches. An illustration is given in Knot, l.c., fig. 15.

Double Blackwall Hitch (fig. 6).—Pass the end a twice round the hook and under the standing part & at the last cross. The ordinary Blackwall hitch only extends to the first cross at b , and is quickly formed by passing the hook of a jigger through the bight of a rope so that the end may be jammed between it and the standing part, as from b to a . Used for setting up top-gallant rigging and similar light work when a slip is of little consequence.

Cat’s-paw (fig. 7).—Twist up two parts of a lanyard in opposite directions and hook the tackle in the eyes i, i. A piece of wood should be placed between the parts at g. A large lanyard should be clove-hitched round a large toggle and a strap passed round it below the toggle.

Marling-Spike Hitch (fig. 8).—Lay the end a over c ; fold the loop over on the standing part &; then pass the marling-spike through, over both parts of the bight and under the part b. Used for tightening each turn of a seizing.

Fishermans Bend (fig. 9).—Take two turns round a spar, then a half-hitch round the standing part and between the spar and the turns, lastly a halfhitch round the standing part.

Studding-Sail Halyard Bend (fig. 10).—Similar to the above, except that the end is tucked under the first round turn; this is more snug. A magnus hitch has two round turns and one on the other side of the standing part with the end through the bight.

Timber Hitch ( fig . 11).—Take the end a of a rope round a spar, then round the standing part 6, then several times round its own part c , against the lay of the rope.

Snaking (fig. 12).—This consists of turns and crossings, the latter taken diagonally with a marling hitch each time. Used to keep wooldings and seizings in place. The same term is applied to lines between the backstays to keep a broken part from falling.

Carrick Bend (fig. 13).—Lay the end of one hawser over its own part to form a bight as e, b ; pass the end of another hawser up through that bight near b , going out over the first end at c , crossing under the first long part and over its end at d, then under both long parts, forming the loops, and above the first short part at b, terminating at the end e", in the opposite direction vertically and horizontally to the other end. The ends should be securely stopped to their respective standing parts, and also a stop put on the becket or extreme end to prevent it catching a pipe or chock; in that form this is the best quick means of uniting two large hawsers, since they cannot jam. When large hawsers have to work through small pipes, good security may be obtained either by passing ten or twelve taut racking turns with a suitable strand and securing each end to a standing part of the hawser, or by taking half as many round turns taut, crossing the ends between the hawsers over the seizing and reef-knotting the ends. This should be repeated in three places and the extreme ends well stopped. Connecting hawsers by bowline knots is very objectionable, as the bend is large and the knots jam.

Sheet Bend.— Pass the end of one rope through the bight of another, round both parts of the other, and under its own standing part. Used for bending small sheets to the clews of sails, which present bights ready for the hitch. An ordinary net is composed of a series of sheet bends. See Knot, l.c., fig. 20. A weavers knot is made like a sheet bend.

Single Wall Knot.— Unlay the end of a rope, and with the strand a form a bight; take the next strand b round the end of a ; take the last strand c round the end of & and through the bight made by a ; haul the ends taut. A double wall against the lay (not crowned) makes a good stopper. A whale knot is similar, but made with the lay. Fig. 21 of art. Knot, l.c., represents a single wall knot.

Single Wall Crowned.— Form a single wall, and lay one of the ends, a , over the knot; lay b over a, and c over b and through the bight of a ; haul the ends taut. See Knot, l.c., fig. 22.

Double Wall and Double Crown.— Form a single wall crowned; then let the ends follow their own parts round until all the parts appear double; put the ends down through the knot. A very excellent and generally used cable-stopper. See Knot, l.c. , fig. 23.

Matthew Walker.— Unlay the end of a rope. Take the first strand round the rope and through its own bight; the second strand round the rope, through the bight of the first, and through its own bight; the third through all three bights. Haul all taut. An easily made and useful knot. Illustrations are given in Knot, l.c., figs. 24 and 25.

Inside Clinch (fig. 14).—The end is bent close round the standing part till it forms a circle and a half, when it is securely seized at a, b, and c, thus making a running eye; when taut round anything it jams the end. It is used for securing hemp cables to anchors, the standing parts of topsail sheets, and for many other purposes. If the eye were formed outside the bight an outside clinch would be made, depending entirely on the seizings, but more ready for slipping.

Midshipman’s Hitch (fig. 15).—Take two round turns inside the bight, the same as a half-hitch repeated; stop up the end; or let another half-hitch be taken or held by hand. Used for hooking a tackle for a temporary purpose.

Turk's Head (fig. 16).—With fine line (very dry) make a clove hitch round the rope; cross the bights twice, passing an end the reverse way (up or down) each time; then keeping the whole spread flat, let each end follow its own part round and round till it is too tight to receive any more. Used as an ornament variously on side-ropes and foot-ropes of jibbooms. It may also be made with three ends, two formed by the same piece of line secured through the rope and one single piece. Form with them a diamond knot; then each end crossed over its neighbour follows its own part as above.

Spanish Windlass (fig. 17).—An iron bar and two marling-spikes are taken; two parts of a seizing are twisted like a cat’s-paw (fig. 7), passed round the bar, and hove round till sufficiently taut. In heaving shrouds together to form an eye two round turns are taken with a strand and the two ends hove upon. When a lever is placed between the parts of a long lashing or trapping and hove round, we have what is also called a Spanish windlass Slings (fig. 18).—This is simply the bight of a rope turned up over its own part; it is frequently made of chain, when a shackle (bow up) takes the place of the bight at s and another at y, connecting the two ends with the part which goes round the mast-head. Used to sling lower yards. For boat’s yards it should be a grummet with a thimble seized in at y. As the tendency of all yards is to cant forward with the weight of the sail, the part marked by an arrow should be the fore-side,—easily illustrated by a round ruler and a piece of twine.

Sprit-Sail Sheet Knot (flg. 19).—This knot consists of a double wall and double crown made by the two ends, consequently with six strands,—with the ends turned down. Used formerly in the clews of sails, now as an excellent stopper, a lashing or shackle being placed at s, and a lanyard round the head at l .

Turning in a Dead-Eye Cutter-Stay fashion (fig. 20).—A bend is made in the stay or shroud round its own part and hove together with a bar and strand; two or three seizings diminishing in size (one round and one or two either round or flat) are hove on taut and snug, the end being at the side of the fellow part. The dead-eye is put in and the eye driven down with a commander.

Turning in a Dead-Eye end up (fig. 21).—The shroud is measured round the dead-eye and marked where a throat-seizing is hove on; the dead-eye is then forced into its place, or it may be put in first. The end beyond a is taken up taut and secured with a round seizing; higher still the end is secured by another seizing. As it is important that the lay should always be kept in the rope as much as possible, these eyes should be formed conformably, either right-handed or left-handed. It is easily seen which way a rope would naturally kink by putting a little extra twist into it. A shroud whose dead-eye is turned in end up will bear a fairer strain, but is more dependent on the seizings; the under turns of the throat are the first to break and the others the first to slip. With the cutter-stay fashion the standing part of the shroud gives way under the nip of the eye. A rope will afford the greatest resistance to strain when secured round large thimbles with a straight end and a sufficient number of flat or racking seizings. To splice shrouds round dead-eyes is objectionable on account of opening the strands and admitting water, thus hastening decay. In small vessels, especially yachts, it is admissible on the score of neatness; in that case a round seizing is placed between the dead-eye and the splice. The dead-eyes should be in diameter 1 ½ times the circumference of a hemp shroud and thrice that of wire; the lanyard should be half the nominal size of hemp and the same size as wire: thus, hemp-shroud 12 inches, wire 6 inches, dead-eye 18, lanyard 6 inches.

Short Splice.— The most common description of splice is when a rope is lengthened by another of the same size, or nearly so. Fig. 22 represents a splice of this kind: the strands have been unlaid, married, and...