The question of improving the currency now became pressing, and Somers was the author of the bold suggestion that a proclamation should be issued simultaneously all over the kingdom, announcing that henceforth all clipped and hammered coins were to be reckoned only by weight. But all possessors of such coins might, by delivering them up on a certain day, receive a note entitling them to draw from the treasury at a future time the difference between the actual and nominal values. The difficulties of the plan, however, rendered its adoption impossible. In April 1697 Somers was made lord chancellor, and was created a peer by the title of Baron Somers of Evesham. When the discussion arose on the question of disbanding the army, he summed up the case against disbanding, in answer to Trenchard, in a remarkable pamphlet called “The Balancing Letter.” In August 1698 he went to Tunbridge Wells for his health. While there he received the king’s letter announcing the first Partition Treaty, and at once replied with a memorandum representing the necessity in the state of feeling in England of avoiding further war. When the king, on the occasion of the Disbanding Bill, expressed his determination to leave the country, Somers boldly remonstrated, while he clearly expressed in a speech in the Lords the danger of the course that was being taken. Hitherto Somers’s character had kept him free from attack at the hands of political opponents; but his connexion in 1699 with the notorious Kidd, who, being sent out to put down the pirates in the Indian Ocean, turned pirate himself, and to the defraying of whose expedition Somers had given £1000, afforded an opportunity; the vote of censure, however, proposed upon him in the House of Commons for giving Kidd a commission under the great seal was rejected by 199 to 131. The attack was renewed shortly on the ground of his having accepted grants of crown property to the amount of £1600 a year, but was again defeated. On the subject of the Irish forfeitures a third attack was made in 1700, a motion being brought forward to request the king to remove Somers from his counsels and presence for ever; but this again was rejected by a large majority. In consequence, however, of the incessant agitation, William now requested Somers to resign; this he refused to do, but gave up the seals to William’s messenger. In 1701 he was impeached by the Commons on account of the part he had taken in the negotiations relating to the Partition Treaty in 1698, and defended himself most ably before the House, answering the charges seriatim. The impeachment was voted and sent up to the Lords, but was there dismissed. On the death of the king Somers retired almost entirely into private life. He was, however, active in 1702 in opposing the Occasional Conformity Bill, and in 1706 was one of the managers of the union with Scotland. In the same year he carried a bill regulating and improving the proceedings of the law courts. He was made president of the council in 1708 upon the return of the Whigs to power, and retained the office until their downfall in 1710. From this time his powers of mind rapidly declined, and after being almost imbecile for six years he died of apoplexy on April 26, 1716. Somers was never married, but left two sisters, of whom the eldest, Mary, married Charles Cocks, whose grandson, Sir Charles Cocks, Bart., became the second Lord Somers in 1784.

For a contemporary character of Somers Addison’s paper in the Freeholder for May 14, 1716, should he referred to; and there is in Macaulay’s History (vol. iv. p. 53) an eloquent and worthy tribute to his stainless character and comprehensive learning. A catalogue of his publications will be found in Walpole’s Royal and Noble Authors.

The shape of the county is determined by the nearly rectangular bend taken by the coast not far from Bridgwater. It falls into three natural divisions, which answer remarkably to the three waves of West-Saxon conquest and to the parliamentary divisions as they stood till the latest changes. The range of Mendip, breaking off from the high ground in the east of the county, completely shuts off the northern part, between Mendip and Bristol, itself hilly. Mendip itself, running slightly north-westward towards the Channel, has for its summit a tableland sloping much more gently to the north than to the south. Its most striking though not its highest points are towards the Channel, where it ends in the promontory of Brean Down, while the Steep Holm stands as an outpost between the hills of Somerset and those of Glamorgan. The sides of Mendip are broken by many passes or combes, the most marked of which are Ebbor rocks near Wells and the greater pass of Cheddar cliffs, whose varied outlines, in the many turns of the pass, are probably the most noteworthy of their kind in England. Between Mendip and the region of loftier hills in the south lies a great alluvial plain, known generally as Sedgemoor, but with different names in different parts. This plain, intersected by ditches known as rhines, and in some parts rich in peat, is broken by isolated hills and lower ridges, of which the most conspicuous are Brent Knoll near Burnham, the Isle of Avalon, rising with Glastonbury Tor as its highest point, and the long low ridge of Polden ending to the west in a steep bluff. In the south is Blackdown on the border of Devonshire, the higher range of Quantock (highest point 1262 feet) stretching to the sea, and to the west again the mountainous region of Brendon and Exmoor, commonly believed by tourists to be part of Devonshire. Here are hills of much greater height and bolder outline, the highest point being that of Dunkery (1709 feet) above Porlock. The two principal rivers are the Lower Avon and the Parret. The Avon, after forming for a short distance the boundary with Wilts, crosses the north-eastern corner of the county, encircling Bath, and forms the boundary with Gloucestershire till it reaches the sea 6 miles beyond Bristol. It is navigable for barges as far as Bath. The Parret from South Perrott in Dorset, on the borders of Somerset, crosses the centre of the county north-westwards by Bridgwater, receiving the Ivel or Yeo and Cary on the right, and the Isle and Tone on the left. Among other streams are the Axe, which rises at Wookey Hole in the Mendips and flows north-westward along their base to the Bristol Channel near Blackrock; the Brue, which rises to the east of Bruton, near the borders of Wiltshire, and enters the Bristol Channel near the mouth of the Parret; and the Exe (with its tributary the Barle), which rises in Exmoor forest and passes southward into Devon. The diversified surface of the county is accounted for by the variety and complexity of its geological structure. The Old Red Sandstone, composed of sandbanks and mudbanks of a land-locked lake, is met with in the Mendip Hills and on the banks of the Avon, but presents no feature of importance. The Devonian rocks, after plunging beneath the Triassic strata of the low ground between Williton and Taunton, rise again to the surface in the well-wooded Quantock Hills. The Carboniferous strata occupy a considerable area between Bristol and the Mendip Hills, forming a portion of the Bristol and Somerset coalfield. The Carboniferous limestone, built up mainly of petrified shells and corals, forms a truncated arch in the Mendip Hills, which owe their steepness and rugged contours to its compact and jointed structure, and their ravines and caves to atmospheric influences and to streams acting on the formation at and below the surface. It overlaps to the south the plain of Somerset, and plunges northwards under the coal-measures and Triassic rocks, reappearing in isolated and picturesque masses. The coal-measures, which have a thickness of about 7000 feet, include an upper and a lower series, separated by beds of grit about 2000 feet in thickness, also containing beds of coal (see Coal, vol. vi. p. 52). It is supposed that similar beds underlie the marshes to the south at a depth of from 1000 to 1200 feet. A large portion of the Carboniferous rocks are covered unconformably with the New Red Sandstone and Liassic and Oolitic strata. Triassic rocks prevail over the whole western area, from the Mendips to Exmoor. The highly fossiliferous Rhaetic strata rest on the grey marls of the Trias, and constitute the lower part of the bold scarp of the Lias limestone and clays of the ranges from the sea to the Poldens. Plunging beneath the Oolitic strata, they occupy a large but scattered area in the east between Yeovil and Bath; and these in their turn pass under the Cretaceous strata of the serried Blackdown Hills. A large extent of the county is occupied by alluvial deposits. Caves are common in the body of the hills, among which the greatest are the bone cave near Banwell, the stalactite caves at Cheddar, and Wookey Hole. Hard by the last-named is the hyaena cave discovered in 1852, and explored in 1857-63, when, besides animal remains belonging to a great variety of species, flint and chert implements were also discovered.

Minerals. — Though the exposed area of the coalfield of Somerset is only about 14 square miles, it is estimated to extend over 238 square miles. The amount of coal raised within the county in 1884 was 843,437 tons, valued at £295,202. Spathose iron ore has been long worked in the Brendon Hills, but the industry is declining,—26,041 tons, valued at £13,021, having been obtained in 1858 and only 3582 tons, valued at £2619, in 1884. Lead mining has been carried on in the Mendips from time immemorial, but the industry is of much less importance than it was in earlier times, the amount of dressed lead ore obtained in 1884 being only 664 tons, of lead obtained in smelting 178 tons, of silver obtained from the lead 2760 ounces, and the value of the ore at the mines £1055. Next to coal the most important mineral production is freestone from the Oolitic strata, the largest quarries being in the neighbourhood of Bath. Copper and manganese are obtained in small quantities, as well as fuller’s earth, marl, cement from the Lias, and ochre.

Railways. —The county is so completely intersected by branches of the Great Western Railway in the north and west, and of the South Western in the south and east, that there is perhaps no hamlet more than seven miles from a railway station.

Manufactures.— Woollen and worsted goods are manufactured in a large number of towns; silk at Frome, Taunton, and Shepton Mallet; gloves at Yeovil, Taunton, and other places; crape at Dulverton and Shepton Mallet. There are large potteries at Bridgwater and Weston-super-Mare; at the former town and at Bath there are extensive carriage-works; and there are paper-mills on several of the streams. Most of the commerce of the county passes through Bristol, which is situated mainly in Gloucestershire.

Agriculture.— In the hilly districts much of the land is uncultivated and barren, although affording some pasturage for sheep. There are large tracts of rich meadow land along the banks of the rivers, and the vale of Taunton is well adapted for wheat. On account of the extensive damage frequently caused in the lower grounds by floods, the Somerset Drainage Act was passed by parliament 11th June 1877, providing for the appointment of commissioners to take measures for the drainage of lands in the valleys of the Parret, Ile, Yeo, Brue, Axe, Cary, and Tone, where extensive damage is frequently caused by floods. The following table gives a classification of the holdings in 1875 and 1880:— [table]

Out of a total area of 1,049,815 acres there were 867,469 acres in 1885 under culture, of which 625,957 acres, or nearly three-fourths, were in permanent pasture, 58,863 under clover and rotation grasses, 115,005 under corn crops, 61,650 green crops, 560 flax, and 5434 fallow. Of the corn crops the largest area—49,199 acres —was occupied by wheat, barley occupying 27,934 acres, oats 24,783, beans 11,349, pease 1576, and rye 164. About one half of the area under green crops was occupied by turnips, which covered 30,891 acres, mangold coming next with 10,867 acres, while vetches occupied 8881, potatoes only 7517, and carrots 212. Horses in 1885 numbered 34,848, of which 23,229 were used solely for purposes of agriculture. The number of cattle was 236,899, of which 110,068 were cows and heifers in milk or in calf. Cattle-feeding and dairy-farming are the principal branches of husbandry. Large numbers of cattle are brought from Devon to be grazed on the rich Somersetshire meadows. The district east and west of Wells, with that of Cheddar, is famed for the cheese of that name, and cheese is also extensively made in other districts. Sheep, chiefly Leicesters and Southdowns, are grazed, the number in 1885 being 601,020. The number of pigs in 1885 was 111,719, and of poultry 414,803. In the extent of its orchards, chiefly apple trees, Somerset comes next among the counties of England to Hereford and Devon, the area in 1885 being 23,660 acres. The apples are principally made into cider, which is the common drink of the peasantry. The area under market gardens was 759 acres, and under nursery grounds 170 acres. There were 39,850 acres in 1881 under wood.

According to the Landowners Return Somerset in 1873 was divided among 32,765 owners, possessing 940,483 acres, at an annual value of £2,705,393, 18s., or an average value all over of about £2, 17s. 6d. per acre. There were 20,370 proprietors, or about 62 per cent., who possessed less than one acre, and 19,246

acres were common land. The following possessed over 9000 acres each:—Viscount Portman, 24,171; Sir T. D. Acland, 16,320; Sir J. H. G. Smyth, 13,543; Earl of Ilchester, 13,169; G. F. Luttrell, 12,732; Earl of Carnarvon, 12,732; Earl Poulett, 10,118; A. G. Lethbridge, 9103; and Sir A. A. Hood, 9008.

Administration and Population.— Somerset comprises forty hundreds, two liberties (Hampton and Claverton, Mells and Leigh), the cities of Bath (population 51,814 in 1881) and Wells (4634), part (38,131) of the city of Bristol, and the municipal boroughs of Bridgwater (12,007), Chard (2411), Glastonbury (3719), Taunton (16,614), and Yeovil (8479). For parliamentary purposes the county, which was formerly divided into East, Mid, and West Somerset, was by the Act of 1885 parted out in seven separate divisions—North, South, East, West (or Wellington), Bridgwater, Frome, and Wells. The borough of Frome was in 1885 merged in its county district. The city of Bath returns two members, and a portion of the East Division of Bristol is within the limits of the county. In addition to the boroughs the following urban sanitary districts are situated within the county:—Burnham (1904), Clevedon (4869), a rising watering-place, Frome (9377), Midsomer-Norton (4422), Radstock (3074), Shepton Mallet (5322), Street (2514), Wellington (6360), Weston-super-Mare (12,884), a favourite watering-place, and Wiveliscombe (1624). The county has one-court of quarter sessions, and is divided into twenty-two petty and special sessional divisions. The city of Bath and the borough of Bridgwater have commissions of the peace and separate courts of quarter sessions; and the city of Wells and the borough of Yeovil have commissions of the peace. The county contains 489 civil parishes, with parts of three others. Ecclesiastically it corresponds closely to the diocese of Bath and Wells. From 273,577 in 1801 the population had increased in 1831 to 403,795, in 1851 to 443,916, in 1871 to 463,483, and in 1881 to 469,109, of whom 220,582 were males and 248,527 females. The number of persons to an acre in 1881 was 0·45 and of acres to a person 2·24.

History.— Somerset, the land of the Sumorsaetan, is one of the West-Saxon shires which grew by gradual conquest from the Welsh, as opposed to the Mercian shires mapped out round a town and called by its name. The name may well enough be what it seems at first sight, as it is called in Welsh Wlad-yr-haf, and in Latin sometimes aestiva regio. Anyhow the land bears the name of the folk. There has never been any central town or acknowledged capital, though Somerton bears a name cognate with the land. Assizes, elections, and the like have been held at different places at different times. There is no distinct name for the land earlier than the English conquest; it does not preserve the name of any British tribe, like the neighbouring Damnonii and Durotriges. But there are abundance of remains both of prehistoric and of Roman times, beginning with the stones which have given their name to Stan nton Drew and the great giant’s chamber at Wellow. Many of the hills are crowned with camps, as Cadbury, seven acres in extent, the remains on Hampton Down, near Bath, the fortress of Maesbury Castle, remarkably well preserved, the camp on Worlebury Hill, containing a number of hut circles, Dolbury camp on the Mendips, of great extent and surrounded by a stone ditch and rampart, and Norton Fitzwarren, near Taunton. At Bath the Romans had an important city, Aquae Sulis, on the line of the “fosse” which crossed the centre of Somerset, skirting the eastern ridges of the Mendips by Shepton Mallet and Ilchester (Ichalis) to the ancient Moridunum. From Ilchester another Roman road passed to Durnovium (Dorchester). From Brean Down, where there was a Roman port, a road crossed south-eastwards by the Mendips and Shepton Mallet to Sorbiodunum (Salisbury). The completeness of the Roman occupation is evidenced not only by the variety and importance of the relics which have been discovered, but by the wide area over which they are spread. That lead was wrought by the Romans in the Mendips is evidenced by laminae found at various places bearing the imperial stamp; from the remains of old pottery kilns that have been discovered it would appear that this industry then as now was of considerable importance; the foundations of Roman villas are very common, and there are many remarkably fine specimens of Roman pavements. After the withdrawal of the Roman power, the district formed part of the British kingdom of Damnonia or West Wales, and it plays its part in the legends of Arthur, which seem to have grown out of the history of that kingdom. The religious history gathers round the Isle of Avalon and its monastery, known in Welsh as Ynysvitrin and in English as Glastonbury, names of somewhat uncertain origin and use, and which must not be pressed too strongly. Wild legends connect the place with Joseph of Arimathaea and a crowd of saints from Ireland and elsewhere. It is enough to say that it undoubtedly was a religious house, though perhaps of no very great antiquity, before the English conquest reached so far, and that it was the one great church (as Exeter was the one great city) which lived on uninterruptedly through the English conquest. That conquest began in 577 with the campaign of Ceawlin, when, after the battle of Deorham, he took Gloucester, Cirencester, and Bath and advanced his frontier to the Axe. This was the last heathen conquest; before the second advance under Cenwealh the West-Saxons had become Christians. His two victories in 652 aud 658 carried the English frontier to the Parret, and took in Glastonbury. The later stages are less clear; Centwine in 672 “drove the Bretwealas to the sea,” and Ine fought with the Welsh king Gerest in 710 and made Taunton a border fortress at some time before 722. By this time the conquest was complete. In the Danish wars Aelfred in 878 found shelter at Athelney and then went forth to his victory at Ethandun (Edington in Wiltshire), after which peace was made with the Danes at Wedmore. We hear of several later Danish invasions, but the Danes never made any settlements. Under Edward the Confessor Somerset formed part of the earldom, first of Swegen and then of Harold. It probably submitted to the Norman Conqueror after the taking of Exeter in 1068, and an English revolt in the next year was put down. In 1088 Ilchester stood a siege in the cause of William Rufus, and the county plays its part in the wars of Stephen. During the Middle Ages onward to the period of the civil war the historical events of Somerset—with the exception of the episode of Perkin Warbeck, who seized and abandoned Taunton in 1497— are chiefly associated with Bristol (q.v.). The great mass of the people, especially those in the towns, took the Parliament side in the great conflict, but from 1643 to 1645 the shire was in the hands of the Royalists, with the exception of Taunton, which held out heroically under Blake till relieved by Fairfax on the 11th May of the latter year, which was followed by other successes until the whole district was regained by the Cromwellian party. The continuance of a strong Puritan feeling in the district was evidenced forty years later by the support given to the Monmouth rebellion, the latest historical event of special importance connected with the county.

The history of the county and its existing remains of antiquity have been largely affected by its ecclesiastical history. First part of the single bishopric of Wessex at Winchester, then of that of Sherborne, the land of Sumorsaetan became a distinct diocese in 909 with its bishopstool at Wells. The seat and style of the bishop have changed several times, but the boundaries of the diocese have changed remarkably little. Nowhere except in Sussex have the shire and the diocese been so nearly the same thing at all times. The great possessions of the bishopric and of the abbey of Glastonbury led to a remarkable lack of castles in the mid part of the county, and also tended to overshadow all other ecclesiastical foundations. Even in the other parts of the county castles are not a prominent feature, and no monastic church remains perfect except those of Bath and its cell Dunster. To Bath the bishopstool was removed in 1088, and after some shiftings, including a transfer to Glastonbury, the double style of Bath and Wells was established, the monks of Bath and the canons of Wells forming two separate chapters for the bishop. At the dissolution of monasteries Bath was suppressed, Wells became the sole (chapter, but the name of Bath was still kept in the bishop’s style. The monastery of Glastonbury was destroyed, as were most of the smaller monasteries also. Of those which have left any remains, Woodspring, Montacute (Cluniac), Cleeve (Cistercian), and Michelney are the most remarkable. Athelney, founded by Aelfred on the spot where he found shelter, has utterly perished. Montacute and Dunster fill a place in both ecclesiastical and military history. The castle of Robert of Mortain, the Conqueror’s brother, was built on the peaked hill (mons acutus) of Leodgaresburh, where the holy cross of Walthem was found. The priory arose at the foot. Dunster, one of the few inhabited castles in England, stands on a hill crowned by an English mound. Besides these there are also remains at Nunney and Castle Carey; but castles are not a strong point in Somerset antiquities. In ecclesiastical architecture the two great churches of Wells and Glastonbury supply a great study of the development of the earlier Pointed style out of Romanesque. But the architectural strength of the county lies in its great parish churches, chiefly in the Perpendicular style, of which they present a characteristic variety. In the same style among greater churches are Bath abbey, Sherborne minster in Dorset, and Saint Mary Redcliff at Bristol (locally in Somerset and till lately in the diocese), a parish church on the type of a minster. Of earlier work there is little Norman, and hardly any Primitive Romanesque, but there is a characteristic local style in some of the smaller buildings of the 14th century. The earlier churches were often cruciform, and sometimes with side towers. In domestic remains no district is richer; Somerset stands alongside of Northamptonshire owing to the abundance of good stone in both. Clevedon Court is a very fine inhabited manor-house of the 14th century, and the houses, great and small, of the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries are endless. Indeed, the style has never quite gone out, as the gable and the mullioned window have lingered on to this day. Barrington Court in the 16th century...

SOMERVILLE, Mary (1780-1872), scientific writer, was the daughter of Admiral Sir William George Fairfax, and was born 26th December 1780 in the manse of Jedburgh, the house of her mother’s sister, wife of Dr Thomas Somerville, author of My Own Life and Times, whose son was her second husband. She received a rather desultory education, and mastered algebra and Euclid in secret after she had left school, and without any extraneous help. In 1804 she married her cousin Captain Samuel Greig, who died in 1806; and in 1812 she married another cousin, Dr William Somerville, inspector of the army medical board, who encouraged and greatly aided her in the study of the physical sciences. After her marriage she made the acquaintance on the Continent and in London of the most eminent scientific men of the time, among whom her talents had attracted attention before she had acquired general fame, Laplace paying her the compliment of stating that she was the only woman who understood his works. Having been requested by Lord Brougham to translate for the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge the Mécanique Celeste of Laplace, she greatly popularized its form, and its publication in 1831 under the title of The Mechanism of the Heavens at once made her famous. She was elected an honorary member of the Royal Astronomical Society, and her bust by Chantrey was placed in the hall of the Royal Society of London. Her other works are the Connection of the Physical Sciences (1834), Physical Geography (1848), and Molecular and Microscopic Science (1869). Much of the popularity of her writings is due to their clear and crisp style, and the underlying enthusiasm for her subject which pervades them. In 1835 she received a pension of £300 from Government. She died at Naples 28th November 1872. In the following year there appeared her Personal Recollections, consisting of reminiscences written during her old age, and of great interest both for what they reveal of her own character and life and the glimpses they afford of the literary and scientific society of bygone times.