Of the interior of the island a considerable part has been only partially explored, so that the physical features can hardly be given with sufficient precision and detail. The general character of the country is mountainous, though none of the ranges and few of the individual peaks attain to any great elevation The centre of the island seems to be occupied by a kind of table-land, with which the principal chains connect themselves more or less directly. Of these the most extensive may be traced from Cape Dattb on the west coast, in 2° 5' 24" N. lat., northwards through the length of the island, which it divides as watershed into two portions, a north-western of comparatively narrow dimensions, and a south-eastern comprising the rest of the island. The different parts of the chain are known by various local names, as the Krimbang or Bayang-Miut, the Batang-Lupar, the Madi, and the Anga-Anga Mountains. Tn the north-west corner of the island it attains its highest elevation in Kini-balu, or St Pietersberg, which is generally supposed to be the highest peak in the whole island. According to the trigonometrical measurement of Capt. Belcher the summit is 13,G98 feet above the level of the sea, but this was in 1851 reduced to 9500 by Messrs Low and St John, who were the first to ascend the mountain. A second great chain, known as the Kaminting Mountains, stretches south-west from the Anga-Anga, and fills the south-west corner of the island with numerous offshoots and underfalls; and a third starting from the same quarter strikes first south-east and then south along the southern part of the eastern coast, and is known as the Meratu Mountains. A fourth chain, of which the most important part bears the name of Sakuru, runs almost due east to Cape Kamiungun.

U alike the most of the larger islands of the archipelago, and in remarkable contrast with Java, Borneo seems to possess no active volcanoes. Many of the peaks, however, bear distinct evidence of former activity in regular craters, now in some cases forming lakes of salt water. The prevailing rocks are limestone, slate, sandstones, conglomerates, and on the mountain tops syenitic granite. The limestone hills are remarkable for the number of their caves, many of which, such as those of Kumbary, are a source of wealth to the natives, as they afford shelter to swallows that build edible nests.

The island, which is abundantly supplied with rivers and streams, may be hydrographically divided into five principal versants Of these the shortest lies along the northwestern slope of the Krimbang and Kini-balu range, and discharges its waters into the Chinese Sea. The most important of its rivers are the Sarawak, the Batang-Lupar, the Seribas, the Rejang (which is navigable for 140 miles), the Baram (about half a mile wide at its mouth), the Limbang or Bruni River, the Tewaran, the Bintulu, and the Tampasuk, the last two having their sources in Mount Kini-balu itself. In the south-western versant the largest river is the Kapuas, which, rising towards the centre of the island, in about 114° E. long., falls, after a long and winding course, into the sea between Mempawa and Sukkadana. It has eight navigable mouths, and at Sintang, where it receives the Melawi, its principal tributary, it has a breadth of 1072 feet and a varying depth of 6 to 11 fathoms. The Banjermassin or Barito, which is the master stream of the southern versant, rises in the Kuti-Lama Lake, and reaches the Sea of Java in 114° 30' E. long. Its upper channel is greatly interrupted by rocks and waterfalls, but the lower part of its course is wide and navigable, and traverses a rich alluvial district. Cross branches unite it with two rivers of considerable size towards the west, the Little Dayak or Murung and the Great Dayak or Kahayan, and still further west are the independent rivers Mendawi, Sampit, Pembuang or Surian, and Kota-Waringin. Passing over the south-east corner of the island, which is watered by a large number of short mountain streams, we reach the one great river of the eastern versant, the Kuti (Coti) or Mahakkan, which, rising in Mount Lassan-Tula, flows east, with a rapid and sinuous course, and falls by numerous mouths into the Strait of Macassar. Most of the rivers of the northern versant are comparatively small, as the island narrows iuto a kind of promontory. Besides the Sebuku, which rises in Mount Pentyieangan and falls into the sea at Temelingan, the Berou, the Gunong-Tebur, and the Bulungan arc all worthy of mention.

Among the lakes of Borneo that of Kini-balu, near the mountain of the same name, is regarded as the largest, but many others are of considerable size. The Danau Sriang, for example, on the Kapuas River, is, according to Dr E. van Martens, larger than the Lake of Constance. In the valley of the Banjermassin are the Babi and the Pamingir (or Telaga) Jakes, the latter of which supplies nearly all the inhabitants of the kiugdom with fish; and in the district of Sintang there is an extensive sheet of water, on the Kapuas-Tawang, which was discovered in 1825, and is known by the various names of the Luar, Sumbah, Malayu, or van Capellan Lake.

In spite of the equatorial position of the island its climate is nowhere oppressive, and in many places might almost be called temperate. At Pontianak, for example, which is almost under the equator, the mean reading of the thermometer is 82°, while it varies from 76° to 79° at sunrise, and hardly ever, even at noon, exceeds 92°. The difference between the rainy season and the dry is not rigidly marked; the atmosphere is moist all the year round, and while, on the one hand, there is hardly a day of continuous downpour, there is hardly, on the other hand, a day without a shower. During the rainy season, which extends from November to May inclusive, the torrents, while they last, are tremendous, and the wind is frequently violent. Over such an extensive area there is, of course, great variety in the climatic character of different districts, especially when viewed in relation to health. Some places, as Bidi, for example, are notoriously unhealthy; but from the statistics of the Dutch Government it appears that the European has in general no more to fear in Borneo than in the island of Java. Among the native races the prevailing diseases are principally those that arise from bad food or want of cleanliness. Scrofula is common throughout the country, and elephantiasis is frequently met with on the coast. Small-pox, dysentery, and fevers are the usual epidemics; and ophthalmia sometimes attacks whole tribes. About a sixth of the native population in some quarters suffer from a kind of ringworm, called kurab, which is identified with herpes farinosus. Consumption is not uncommon.

The mineral wealth of Borneo is great and varied, including diamonds, gold, platina, quicksilver, cinnabar, copper, iron, tin, antimony, petroleum, sulphur, rock-salt, marble, and coal. Landak and Pontianak arc the best diamond districts, and Sambas, Landak, Montrado, and Borneo Proper furnish the greatest quantity of gold. The annual amount of gold collected in the island cannot be ascertained; but the amount exported from Bruni in 1870 was 5789 dollars. Coal of excellent quality is found in the valleys of the Banjermassin, the Kuti, the Gunong-Tebur, and the Melawi, as well as in Sarawak, and in the island of Labuan. The Kuti deposit was discovered in 1845 or 1846 above Samarinda, and has since been struck in a number of places along the main river and several of the tributaries. A mine was opened at Pelarang, but does not seem to be at present worked. Another, however, at Pengaron, on the Riam Kiva, yields annually about 9000 or 10,000 tons. The coal-fields in Borneo Proper were conceded to Sir James Brooke in 1846, and since 1868 have been in the hands of the Oriental Coal Company, which has as yet taken no advantage of its rights. Antimony was discovered to be a Bornean product by Mr J. Craufurd, the well-known geographer, who, in 1825, learned that a quantity had been brought to Singapore by a native trader as ballast. The supply is practically unlimited, and the chief mine is at Bidi in Sarawak.

The fauna of Borneo comprises a large variety of species, many of which are numerically of great importance. Among the Quadrumana, which are very well represented, the most remarkable is the orang-outan (or mias, as it is called by the natives), an animal only to be found elsewhere in the Island of Sumatra. It frequents the low-lying districts, especially in the neighbourhood of the Dyak plantations. The wawah, a kind of gibbon, several Semnopitheci (as the longnosed ape and the golden-black or chrysomelas), and the large-eyed Stenops tardigradus are also worthy of mention. The larger beasts of prey seem to be altogether wanting, so that little check is put on the natural fecundity of the graminivorous species. A small panther and the Felis macrocelis are the largest animals of the cat-kind known; for though the tiger has sometimes been reported to occur in the mountains, its presence has never been verified. The Malay or honey bear is very common. The rhinoceros is found on the north-west coast, and the elephant, introduced by the Chinese or Portuguese, in the neighbourhood of Cape Unsang. Wild oxen of the Sunda race are not uncommon; and the whole island swarms with droves of wild pigs, which are distinguished by a curious protuberance of hair on each side of the head. These furnish food not only to the Dyaks, who are very fond of the flesh, but also to the crocodiles that abound in the principal rivers. Three or four species of deer are enumerated, one of which, the pelandok of the Malays, is remarkable for its smallness and beauty. Squirrels, porcupines, civet-cats, rats, bats, and lizards are well represented, and snakes of various kinds, from the boa constrictor downwards, are abundant, while the marshy districts swarm with frogs and leeches. The latter attach themselves in a most troublesome manner to the passing traveller. A remarkable flying-frog was discovered by Mr Wallace. Birds are comparatively rare in many quarters; the most important being eagles, vultures, falcons, owls, horn-bills, cranes, pheasants,—notably the Argus-pheasant, —partridges, ravens, crows, parrots,woodpeckers, doves, and swallows. The Cypselus esculentus, or edible-nest swallow, is very common. Mosquitoes and sandflies are the chief insect pests, and in some districts are very troublesome. There is also a kind of ant called the sumpitrapi or fire-ant, the sting of which is very painful. The lepidopterous insects are remarkable for their number, variety, beauty, and size. In one favourable situation Mr Wallace caught 120 different species of moths in one night. The Coleoptera are no less numerously represented, as, indeed, might be expected in so richly-wooded a region. The lakes and rivers, as well as the surrounding sea, abound with fish. Dr Bleeker in his “Bijdragen tot de Kennis der Ichthyologische Fauna van Borneo," in the Natuurkundig Tijdschrift van Nederl. Ind., describes 176 species which he obtained during his residence in the island.

The domestic animals of Borneo are few both in number of species and for the most part in number of individuals. The character of the country has prevented the development of pastoral modes of life. In some districts, as in the neighbourhood of Ambong, there are bullocks of the Brahmin breed, about thirteen hands high; the buffalo is sometimes employed in agriculture; and sheep and goats occur. The cat and dog are both domesticated. A few horses, introduced by Europeans, and only possessed by the wealthier classes, are found in Banjermassin and Sarawak.

The flora of Borneo is very rich, the whole surface of the island being clothed in luxuriant vegetation. The king of the forest is the tappan, which, rising to a great height with a single branchless stem, is crowned with a splendid dome of foliage. From the wood of this tree the chiefs construct their official seats. The iron-wood, so remarkable for the durability of its timber, is abundant; it is used by the natives for the pillars of their houses, and forms an article of export to China. It is almost rivalled by the kayu temesu in hardness. In all about sixty kinds of timber are furnished in more or less profusion. Palm-trees are abundant in great variety, including the nipa, cabbage, fan, cocoa-nut, and sago palms; the two last afford large supplies of food to the natives. Gutta-percha, camphor, cinnamon, cloves, nutmegs, gambir, and betel-nuts are all produced in the island; most of the tropical fruits flourish, such as the mangosteen, the lansat, rambutan, jack, jambon, and blimbang; nor must the wonderful durian be forgotten, of which Mr Wallace enthusiastically declares that it is worth a voyage from Europe to taste it. It is a large fruit with an exceedingly strong spiked outer covering, and not unfrequently inflicts severe wounds by falling on the passers by. Yams, potatoes (an indigenous sort), melons, pumpkins, cucumbers, pine-apples, and bananas, sugar, pepper, cotton, and tobacco are cultivated, though not as yet on a very extensive scale. In the south-eastern division of the Dutch territory the export of cotton was in 1854 1795 picols. The product of the wild plant is very good, and is exported from Borneo Proper. Among the more beautiful of the flowering plants are rhododendrons, orchids, and pitcher-plants,—the last reaching a most extraordinary development, especially in the northern districts about Kini-balu. Epiphytous plants are very common, many that are usually independent assuming here the parasitic character. The Vanda Lowιi, for example, “grows on the lower branches of trees, and its strange pendent flower-stalks often hang down so as almost to reach the ground.” Ferns are abundant, but are not so varied as in Java; Mr Wallace collected fifty species.

The population of Borneo consists of a considerable variety of races, of very different-origin, and of different degrees of civilization. The most important numerically are the Dyaks, the Malays, the Chinese, and the Buginese; and, from their political influence, the Arabs and the Dutch.

The Dyaks, Dayaks, or Dayakkers are generally regarded as the most aboriginal. For themselves they have no general designation; but, broken as they are into numerous tribes, they are distinguished by separate tribal names, many of which seem to be merely the names of the rivers on which their settlements are situated. Though regarded by the Malays as aliens, and looked down upon as almost beneath humanity, they belong to the same race. Separation, however, must have taken place at a very early date. Kessel, who has attempted to form a classification of the Dyaks according to their ethnographical affinity, divides them into five principal branches. The first of these, which he calls the north-western, includes the natives of Sadong, Sarawak, Sambas, Landak, Tayan, Melionøw, and Sangow. They all speak the same language, and are remärkable for their dependence on the Malay princes. The second branch, which is called emphatically the Malayan from its greater retention of Malay characteristics, occupies the north coast in Banting, Batang-Lupar, Rejang, and part of the valley of the Kapuas. To the third or Parian branch belong the Dyaks of the rivers Kuti and Passir, who are said to speak a language like that of Macassar. The fourth consists of the Beyadjoes, who are settled in the valley of the Banjermassin; and the fifth and lowest comprises thé Manketans and Punans, who are still nomadic and ignorant of agriculture. In stature the Dyak is rather above the Malay, while still considerably shorter than the average European. He is rather slightly built, but is active and capable of eħduring great fatigue. His features are distinctly marked and often well-formed, though the cheekbones are higher and the nose more retrousse than agrees with the European standard. The forehead is generally high, and the eyes are dark; the hair is black, and the colour of the skin a pure reddish brown, that frequently, in the female, approaches to a Chinese complexion. In general neither beard nor whiskers are present, but this does not hold of all the tribes. In dress there is considerable variety, great alterations having resulted from foreign influence. The original and still prevailing style is very simple, consisting of a mere chawat or waistcloth, generally of blue cotton, for the men, and a tight-fitting petticoat for the women, who acquire a peculiar mincing gait from its interference with their walking. The favourite ornaments of both sexes are brass rings for the legs and arms, hoops of rattan decorated in various ways, necklaces of white and black beads, and crescent-shaped ear-rings of a large size. Tattooing is commonly practised by most of the tribes. The men usually go bare-headed, ot wear a bright-coloured kerchief. The custom of betel-chewing being almost universal, the betel-pouch worn at the side is a necessary part of the equipment. The weapons in use are a klewary or curved sword and a long spear. The bow is unknown, but its place among some tribes is partly supplied by the sumpitan, or blowpipe, in the boring of which they show great skill. When going to war the Dyak invests himself with a strong padded jacket, which proves no bad defence. Not only is it a custom with many tribes to preserve the skulls of their slaughtered enemies as trophies of their success in war; but, as the possession of a certain number of human heads is necessary before a man can be admitted to some of the most important of his social privileges, it is usual for the young men to go out on private head-hunting excursions. The custom, however, is dying out before the influence of civilization.

The Dyak is decidedly intelligent; his memory is tenacious, and his powers of observation good. Unacquainted in his natural state with both reading and writing, his aptitude for acquiring these arts is greatly praised by missionaries. In moral character he is far superior to the civilized Malay, being unsuspicious and hospitable, and honest and truthful in a striking degree. The various tribes differ greatly in religious ceremonies and beliefs, and it is hard to give a satisfactory idea of them. They have no temples, priests, or regular recurrence of worship; but the father of each family performs such rites as the exigencies of each day demand. A supreme god seems generally acknowledged, but subordinate deities are supposed to watch over special departments of the world and human affairs. Sacrifices both of animals and fruits—and in some cases even of human beings—are offered to appease or invoke the gods; divination of various kinds is resorted to for the purpose of deciding the course to be pursued in any emergency; and criminals are subjected to the ordeal by poison or otherwise. There is a very strong belief in the existence of evil spirits, and all kinds of calamities and diseases are ascribed to their malignity. Thus almost the whole medical system of the Dyaks consists in the application of appropriate charms or the offering of conciliatory sacrifices. Many of those natives who have had much intercourse with the Malays have adopted a kind of mongrel Mahometanism, with a mixture of Hindu elements. The transmigration of souls seems to be believed in by some tribes; and some have a system of successive heavens rising one above the other very much in the style of the Hindu cosmogony. In the treatment of their dead the same variety prevails as in other things—they are sometimes buried, sometimes burned, and sometimes elevated on lofty framework. The Dyaks have no exact calculation of the year, and simply name the...