Columbus in 1498 decided that the Orinoco must flow through some vast continent. Vincent Yanez Pinzon, a Spanish navigator, is believed to have first sailed up the Amazon from the coast. Vasco Nunez landed on the coast of Guiana in 1504, but the discovery is also claimed for Diego de Ordas, one of the captains of Cortez in the conquest of Mexico in 1531. Sir Walter Raleigh ascended the Orinoco in 1595 in search of the El Dorado. The first settlement is stated to be that of some Dutch people in 1580 near the river Pomeroon. This possession was contested by the Spaniards, but in 1613 a colony of Zealanders on the banks of the Essequibo was reported in a flourishing condition. English and subsequently French colonization was attempted up the Surinam river. The English returned in 1652 to Paramaribo, and in 1662 the whole colony was granted by Charles II. to Lord Willoughby. In 1669, however, Dutch Guiana covered all the territory now divided into British, Dutch, and French. In 1712 the French attacked the settlement and exacted a contribution. In 1732 Berbice received a constitution from the states-general, and in 1763 there was a formidable insurrection of negro slaves who had been introduced from Africa. In 1781 Rodney took possession; and though the colonies were restored to Holland in 1783, they surrendered again to the British in 1796. The Dutch resumed authority in 1802, and in 1803 the proper history of British Guiana began.

I. British Guiana, when finally acquired in 1803, and formally ceded in 1814, consisted of the three colonies, Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, so named after the principal rivers which drain them. These were consolidated into one colony in July 1831. It is bounded on the N. and N.E. by the Atlantic, E. by Dutch Guiana, from which it is separated by the river Corantyn, S. by Brazil, and W. by Venezuela. It lies between 0° 40' and 8° 40' N. lat., and 57° and 61° W. long., and has an estimated area of 76,000 square miles, but the boundaries are still disputed by Venezuela and Brazil. An engagement, however, exists between the British and Venezuelan Governments that neither shall occupy territory claimed by both. The colony has now three divisions, called counties:—Berbice, extending from the Corantyn about 95 miles along the sea-coast; Demerara, from the Abari about 65 miles, including Georgetown, the capital; and Essequibo, from the river of that name about 120 miles to the Barima near the Orinoco mouth. There is thus a length of coast of 280 miles, with an extent inland varying from 300 to 450 miles.

Surface.— From the coast-line seaward the ocean deepens very gradually, and at low tide extensive mud-flats and sandbanks are left bare. Traced inland, this fluvio-marine deposit is found to rise to 10 or 12 feet above high-water mark, and to end at an older deposit of sand and clay beds, which forms an extensive undulating country, rising to not more than 150 feet above the sea, and stretching back to where the solid rock strata underlying it crop out. Upon the rich alluvial soil of the depressed coast-land, and for a few miles up the rivers, the sugar estates are situated. They are not only protected by dams from the sea, but, as in wet weather water rapidly accumulates in the savannahs behind, they are similarly defended on that side also. A narrow sand reef, some little distance farther inland, running parallel with the coast-line, marks a previous sea limit, and still farther back a higher range of coarse white sand probably marks a yet earlier coast. The eastern portion of the colony from the sources of the Corantyn and Essequibo is a rough inclined plane, sloping down to the sea-level from a height of about 800 feet, the most elevated part being mountainous and rising to 2000 feet above the sea. Thi3 plain extends westward and northward, broken by ranges of mountains, its western portion constituting part of the extensive savannah which stretches eastward from Brazil. Two great parallel mountain systems cross the colony from west to east, the greater being that of the Pacaraima and Merumé mountains, and the lesser including the Canucn, Cumucumu, and Coratamung mountains, while the Sierra Acarai, a densely wooded chain rising to 2500 feet, forms the southern boundary of Guiana and the watershed between the Essequibo and the tributaries of the Amazon. The Pacaraima mountains, a wide extent of rough country traversed by broad valleys, extend from about 4° to 5° 30' N. lat., and rise to 3000 feet between the Potaro and Siparuni rivers, and to 7500 feet at Roraima mountain, which rises, a perpendicular inaccessible wall of red sandstone, at the extreme western limits of the colony. The southern portion of Pacaraima shows rugged hills and valleys strewn with rocks, but to the north, where the sandstone assumes table-shaped forms, there are dense forests, and the scenery is of extraordinary grandeur. The Imataca range lies between the Cuyuni and Barima rivers in 7° to 8° N. lat. A sandstone formation can be traced from the northern Pacaraima mountains on the west to the Corantyn on the east. Interbedded with it are three great layers of greenstone. The surface of a very large portion of the colony is composed of gneiss, which is seen in large rounded bosses in the river beds. Schist of different kinds is associated with gneiss in many localities. Quartz-porphyry and felstone occupy extensive areas over the surface of the granite and underlying the gneiss. A large proportion of the surface rock in the interior is granite. The white sand at the sandhills on the Demerara and elsewhere is very pure and well-adapted for glass-making. Gold has been found about 40 miles up the Cuyuni river. Attempts to work it have met with small success, and have been complicated with questions of boundary.

Rivers.— The colony is traversed by numerous large rivers, the principal being the Essequibo, Corantyn, Mazaruni, Cuyuni, Berbice, and Demerara. The Corantyn forms the boundary between British and Dutch Guiana. It rises in 2° N. lat., 100 miles eastward of the Essequibo, Hows generally northward, and falls into the Atlantic by a broad estuary in 6° N. lat., 57° W. long. It is navigable for small vessels for 150 miles from its mouth, and is remarkable for its magnificent cataracts. The Cuyuni, coming from Venezuela, runs a course of 120 miles through territory claimed as British. The Essequibo rises in the Sierra Acarai, 0° 40' N. lat., and after a course of at least 600 miles discharges itself into the ocean by an estuary 15 miles in width, in 7° N. lat., 58° 40' W. long. In this estuary are a group of islauds where sugar is grown, several being from 12 to 15 miles long and 3 miles broad. The principal are Hog Island, Wakenaam, and Leguan; a smaller one is named Tiger Island. The entrance of the Essequibo is difficult owing to deposits of mud and sand. Its course lies through forests of gigantic vegetation. About 43 miles from its mouth it is joined by the Mazaruni, which is itself joined by the Cuyuni at 8 miles from its mouth. The cataracts, of which one of the greatest is the King William’s Cataract of Schomburgk, in 3° 14' 35" N. lat., put a stop to the navigation of the Essequibo by large vessels about 50 miles up. In 3° 57' 30" N. lat. and 58 θ 3' W. long, it receives the Rupununi, which has a course of 220 miles. Another large tributary is the Potaro, upon which is the celebrated Kaieteur (Old Man’s) Fall, so named from an Indian legend, and discovered on April 24, 1870, by Mr C. B. Brown of the Geological Survey, who, owing to cataracts, took a fortnight to reach the fall from the coast up the Essequibo and Potaro. This fall, in 5° 8' N. lat. and 59° 19' W. long., is produced by the river flowing over a sandstone and conglomerate table-land 822 feet into a deep valley below. For the first 741 feet the water falls perpendicularly, as one great continuous whitish column, circled by rainbows, into a basin below, continuing thence over a sloping cataract 88 feet in height, and through the interstices of great blocks of rock, to the riverbed below. The head of the fall is 1130 feet above the sea. The river 200 yards above the fall is 400 feet wide, and the width of the fall itself varies, according to the season, from 240 to 370 feet. The Demerara or Demerary rises probably near 5° N. lat., and after a northward course nearly parallel with the Essequibo for more than 200 miles, enters the Atlantic near 6° 50' N. lat. and 58° 20' W. long. It is navigable for 85 miles, and at its mouth at Georgetown is 1J miles across. A bar, or depoβit of mud and sand, prevents the entrance of large vessels at low tide. Farther east is the Berbice, whose source is probably about 3° 40' N. lat. It is 2j miles wide at its mouth in 6° 21' N. lat., 57° 12' W. long., and is navigable for 175 miles by vessels drawing 7 feet of water. The Canje creek falls into the Berbice near its mouth. Several large streams called creeks fall directly into the Atlantic between the Berbice and the Demerara. The Boerasiri creek divides the counties of Demerara and Essequibo, and between the Essequibo and the Barima are the rivers or creeks Pomeroon, Morucca, and Waini.

Climate.— The climate, especially in the interior, is healthy. The even temperature is considered suitable for pulmonary complaints; and tubercular consumption is unknown. There are no hurricanes, and gales are not frequent. Occasionally there is a long drought, but the following order of seasons is generally maintained. From the middle of April to June there is a long season of heavy rains, which decrease in July; the long dry season lasts from August to November; December and January comprise the short rainy season, and February and March the short dry season. The winds during the rains are generally westerly. In the dry seasons they blow from the ocean and modify the heat. The thermometer seldom rises above 90° or falls below 75° Fahr. At Georgetown the mean annual temperature is 81° 2'. The rainfall in 1878 was 69 - 94 inches, the average having been 74 inches for 1873-77.

Population.— The census of 1871 was as follows :— 113,570 born iu British Guiana (including 70,000 to 80,000 negroes, 10,000 born of Indian and Chinese parents, and the “coloured” population), 42,681 immigrants fromlndia, 6295 Chinese, 7925 from Madeira and Azores, 13,385 negroes from West-Indian Islands, and 9635 Europeans and others; total 193,491, exclusive of aborigines, estimated at 7000. The estimated total population on 31st December 1876 was 225,365, and further explorations have increased the estimated number of aboriginal Indians. The aborigines are remnants of Indian tribes, such as the Arawaks, Warraus, Caribs, and many others, scattered in the interior of the country. They maintain themselves by fishing and hunting. Traces of “Indian picture-writing,” or sculptured figures, have been found in some granite blocks up the Essequibo. On December 31, 1877, 22,500 East Indian immigrants were working under a five years’ indenture on the estates, and 26,000 not under indenture. »Since 1857, 10,315 East Indian coolies (including women and children), with savings amounting to £260,479, have availed themselves of their right to return passage. A number re-emigrate to the colony. The Indian Government supervises the emigration. In the colony an immigration department regulates labour, wages, and general treatment. About 5000 are now annually introduced. Chinese have also been introduced with and without indenture.

Vegetation.— The vegetation is most luxuriant. The interior affords an exhaustless supply of valuable timber, such as the mora and greenheart, largely used for shipbuilding. The climate insures a continuous succession of tropical flowers and fruits. Many of the trees yield gums, febrifuges, oils, and juices of more or less value, among which may be mentioned caoutchouc, and a gum called “balata,” with properties intermediate between those of caoutchouc ‘and gutta percha. The bark of the crab tree is used for tanning. The silk-cotton tree, which grows 100 feet high and 12 feet round, yields a light-grey silky cotton used for stuffing pillows. Among the palm-trees are the picturesque mountain cabbage palm, growing to the height of 100 feet; the cocoa-nut palm; the sago palm; the eta palm, much esteemed for its beauty and fruit; and the cockarite palm, which produces the most delicate cabbage of all the palm species. The mangrove tree, 15 to 20 feet high, skirts the sea-coast. The tobacco plant grows wild, and indigenous cottons are numerous. A little rice is grown. The fruit of the plantain and banana is largely used for food, and the stems furnish fibre for paper-making. Orange, lime, guava, cashew, and pine-apple are among the fruits. Indigo used to be cultivated. Arnotto, from which the well-known dye is obtained, is indigenous; and logwood and vanilla are also found. Maize, cassava, yams, papaw tree fruit, sweet potatoes, peppers, and other productions are valuable for food or medicine. The largest of the water lilies, the Victoria regia, was first discovered in Guiana.

Animals.— Among the wild animals are the tapir or bush cow, the manatee (the flesh of which is sometimes eaten), the jaguar or “tiger,” three kinds of ant-bear, the sloth, opossum, armadillo, acouri (or hare), numerous monkeys, and vampires, measuring 30 inches from point to point of extended wing. The cayman, alligator, or crocodile of South America, 15 to 20 feet long, abounds in the rivers and canals. Among other reptiles are the iguana (the flesh of which is said to be suitable for eating), many lizards, and snakes (some venomous). Tortoises and turtles are common on the banks of the streams and in sandy districts of the coast. The bird, insect, and fish life of Guiana is of indescribable richness and variety.

Produce, Industries, and Commerce.— There are 120 sugar and 12 small coffee estates in the colony. Cotton was formerly exported, but the cultivation has now ceased. Coffee, the export of which in 1830 was 9⅛ million lb, is not now produced for the foreign market. The deep rich soil has induced large investments in the formation of sugar estates; but the industry has undergone great fluctuations. Exports in 1839, when negro apprenticeship terminated, fell from an average of 66,000 to 38,443 hhds. The equalization of the English duties on free and slave-grown sugar still further restricted cultivation, exports in 1849 being only 32,000 hhds. In 1854 mattershad begun to mend. The prospect of obtaining coolie labourers from India and China caused new capital to be introduced and fresh energy employed. Cultivation was improved and extended, vacuum pans came to be more used, steam ploughs and tile draining were successfully introduced. The value of machinery imported from 1867 to 1876 was £850,000. A quantity of 2 to 3 hhds. (of about 17 cwts. ) per acre is often obtained, but the average is 30 cwts. The juice expressed by the powerful rollers is about 60 per cent, of the weight of canes. The “Demarara crystals” are very popular for their purity and saccharine strength, and command high prices. The sugar exports in 1876 were 119,891 hhds., fully equal to 100,000 tons; in 1877, 111,156 hhds.; and in 1878 (a year with prolonged drought), 86,075 hhds. Nearly all this last quantity went to the United Kingdom, but 20,000 and 32,000 hhds. went to the United States in 1876 and 1877 respectively. The rum exported in 1876 was 36,000 puncheons; in 1877 it was 32,531, and in 1878 28,752. The quantity of rum issued for consumption in the colony in 1878 was 330,392 gallons. The export of molasses (of which less is made as the quality of the sugar improves) is principally to the United States and British provinces, the quantity being 14,320, 19,862, and 17,084 casks in 1876, 1877, 1878. The same years the timber exports (nearly all to the United Kingdom) were 464,436, 357,430, and 303,693 cubic feet. The woodcutting industry, under Government licence, is a considerable one, as is shθλvn by the export of about 5 million shingles annually. Up the rivers and creeks charcoal-burning is carried on; 32,266, 35,631, and 46,746 barrels of charcoal were exported in 1876, 1877, 1878. There are 1,250,000 cocoa-nuts exported yearly. In 1853 the total value of imports was £847,183; in 1877, £2,229,908 (£1,079,898 from the United Kingdom); in 1878, £2,150,714. The exports were in 1853, £1,014,944; in 1877, £3,049,157 (£1,954,766 to the United Kingdom); and in 1878, £2,507,571. The tonnage, inwards and outwards, was 234,089 tons in 1853, and 519,986 tons in 1877.

Government. — The government is vested in a governor appointed by the British crown and a court of policy, originally instituted by the Dutch in 1773 for Demerara, and including Essequibo in 1789. Berbice had until 1831 a separate constitution. The unofficial members of the court were elected by a college of kiezers or electors, who were themselves elected by duly qualified inhabitants. In 1795 this college commissioned some of their own members to act with the court of policy in financial matters. This resulted in an independent body, called financial representatives, being elected by the inhabitants who were qualified to vote for kiezers. The financial representatives and the court of policy meet in annual session as the “combined court,” to discuss finance and pass the annual tax ordinance. The civil list is not permanent, being renewed every seven years. All other ordinances or lc jd laws are passed by the court of policy,—every ordinance being subject to confirmation by the queen. The colony is divided into five electoral districts, with a total of 863 registered electors. These districts elect for life one or two kiezers, seven in all, and one or two financial representatives, six in all. When a vacancy occurs in the court of policy the seven kiezers nominate two persons, one of whom is selected by the court. There are five unofficial members chosen as above, and five official members, viz., the governor, attorney-general, Government secretary, auditor-general, and immigration agent-general. The public revenue in 1853 was £250,017, and the expenditure £236,557. In 1877 the revenue was £389,872, and in 1878 £405,092. Half of this revenue is derived from import duties, and the remainder principally from wine and spirit duties, rum duty, and retail spirit licences. The expenditure in 1877 was £380,566, and in 1878 £417,995. The public debt in 1877 was £323,563. Public and mercantile accounts are kept in dollars (4s. 2d. sterling) and cents.

The Roman .Dutch law is in force in civil cases, modified by orders in council and local ordinances; the criminal law is based on that of Great Britain, and administered in the same way, except that there is no grand jury. The supreme court consists of the chief justice and two puisne judges. Appeal in cases involving £500 and upwards lies to the privy council. There are an inferior court of civil justice, courts of admiralty and vice-admiralty, of petty debt (conducted by stipendiary magistrates), of bail and review (of magistrates’ decisions). One judge sits in the supreme criminal court; and there is an inferior criminal court. Questions of law are decided by three judges in the court of crown cases reserved. Besides apolice magistrate for Georgetown, there arethirteendistricts. each with a stipendiary magistrate appointed by the secretary of state.

Towns.— For a notice of Georgetown, the capital (resident population about 40,000), see vol. x. p. 430. The lighthouse, with revolving light visible for many miles, is at the north end, near the mouth of the river. The lightship is 11 miles off in 6° 56" N....