The old division of Japan into provinces was made by the emperor Seimu (131-190 a.d.), in whose time the jurisdiction of the sovereign did not extend further north than to a boundary line running from the Bay of Sendai, on the east coast of the main island, to near the present treaty port of Niigata on the west coast. The northern portion beyond this line was then occupied by barbarous tribes, of whom the Ainos (still to be found in Yezo) are probably the remaining descendants. The whole country was then divided into thirty-two provinces. In the 3d century the empress Jingô, on her return from her victorious expedition against Corea, portioned out the empire into five home provinces and seven circuits, in imitation of the Corean system. By the emperor Mommu (696-707) some of the provinces were subdivided so as to increase the whole number to sixty-six, and the boundaries then fixed by him were resurveyed in the reign of the emperor Shômu (723-756). The old division is as follows :— [table]

Upon comparing the above list with a map of Japan it •will be seen that the main island contains the Go-kinai, Tc>kaidh, Tozando, Hokurikudô, Sanindô, Saηyodo, and one province (Kishiu) of the Nankaido. Omitting also the island of Awaji, the remaining provinces of the Nankaido give the name Shikoku (“the four provinces”) to the island in which they lie; while the Saikaido coincides exactly with the large island of Kiushiu (“the nine provinces ”). This name Kiushiu must not be confounded with that of the one province of Kishiu on the main island.

In 1868, when the rebellious nobles of Ôshiu and Déwa, in the Tozandô, had submitted to the mikado (the emperor), those two provinces were subdivided, Déwa into Uzen and Ugo, and Oshiu into Iwaki, Iwashiro, Rikuzen, Rikuchiu and Michinoku (sometimes also called Mutsu). This increased the old number of provinces from sixty-six to aeventy-one. At the same time there was created a new circuit, called the Hokkaido, or “northern-sea circuit,” which comprised the eleven provinces into which the large island of Yezo was then divided (viz., Oshima, Shiribéshi, Ishikari, Téshiwo, Kitami, Ifuri, Hitaka, Tokachi, Kushiro, and Nemuro) and the Kurile Islands (Chijima).

Another division of the old sixty-six provinces was made by taking as a central point the ancient barrier of Osaka on the frontier of Omi and Ya*mashiro,—the region lying on the east, which consisted of thirty-three provinces, being called the Kuantô, or “east of the barrier,” the remaining thirty-three provinces on the west being styled Kuansei, or “west of the barrier.” At the present time, however, the term Kuantô is only applied to the eight provinces of Musashi, Sagami, Kôdzuké, Shimotsuké, Kadzusa, Shimôsa, Awa, and Hitachi,—all lying immediately to the east of the old barrier of Hakoné, in Sagami.

Chiιι-goku, or “central provinces,” is a name in common use for the Sanindo and Sanyodo taken together. Sai-koku, or “western provinces,” is another name for Kiushiu, which in books again is frequently called Chinsei.

Each province (kuni) is divided into what may be termed departments (kori). The latter vary in number according to the size of the province. In the old system there were altogether six hundred and twenty-nine departments, but the addition of the HoPkaidô has raised the number to considerably over seven hundred.

For purposes of administration the whole of the empire except the Hok'kaidô was again divided in 1872 into three •cities (fu) and seventy-two prefectures (ken). The three cities are Yedo, Ôzaka, and Kioto. In 1869 Yedo also received the name of Tokio, or “eastern capital,” as opposed to Saikiô (the new name for Kioto), or “western capital.” This was in consequence of the removal of the emperor’s court from his old capital to Yedo. It may, however, be here remarked that, whilst the Japanese invariably speak of Tokio Pu, “the city of Tokio,” they use the name Kioto Pu, “the city of Kioto,” and not, as might have been supposed, Saikio Pu. The limits of the prefectures (ken) were irrespective of the boundaries of the provinces. There were originally seventy-two, but a gradual process of amalgamation has considerably reduced the list; and in August 1876 a Government notification fixed the prefectures at only thirty-five, the names of which are given in the followino· table ·— [table]

From the above list it may be noted that in many instances a single ken now contains several provinces or portions of different provinces. In 1878-9 a separate prefecture (called the Okinawa ken) was created, including the Riukiu (Loochoo) group. Until that time Riukiu was governed by a king of its own, but being in fear of its powerful neighbours, China and Japan, it had for many years sent tribute to both. A question of double allegiance thus arose, which was solved by Japan asserting its sovereignty; the king received the title of noble of Japan, and the Okinawa ken was established. Whether this action on the part of the Japanese Government may not embroil them with China is a point not yet definitely settled.

The total number of islands in the Japanese group, exclusive of the four main ones, is stated to be over three thousand. Many of these are mere barren rocks, uninhabited and uncultivated. Others, again, are of considerable size and exceedingly fertile, particularly the countless islets in the Suwo Nada, commonly known to Europeans under the name of the “Inland Sea,” lying between the main island on the north and the islands of Shikoku and Kiushiu on the south. The whole coast-line, too, is dotted with islands and rocks of all sizes. Oshima, also called Vries Island, at the mouth of the Bay of Yedo, is one of considerable importance. It has many inhabitants, and its volcanic soil is fairly productive. It isthe most northerly of a chain which extends as far south as the 27th degree of north latitude. The Bonin group, termed by the Japanese the Ogasawara Islands, lies far out at sea, to the south of the entrance of Yedo Bay; it consists of two large islands, separated from each other by 50 miles of sea, and a host of islets. The Japanese Government reasserted their sovereignty over the Bonins in 1878. The Kurile Islands are merely a chain of barren rocks, and the few inhabitants are chiefly occupied in the fisheries and in hunting the sea-otter. Due south from the province of Satsuma lie several minor groups, terminating with the Riukiu Islands. The Goto group (lit. “the five islands ”) extends in a westerly direction from the province of Hizen, in Kiushiu, to which it belongs.

Coast-line.— The bays along the coast are often of considerable size. The Japanese, strange to say, have no names for either their bays or their straits, the appellations found on maps and charts having been given by European navigators. Y edo Bay is perhaps the best known to foreigners, but Sendai Bay (on the east coast) and that running up tO A the north of the island of Awaji, and commonly called Ôzaka Bay, are also famous. Owari Bay, in the province of that name, is of considerable size. The Bay of Kagoshima, in the province of Satsuma, is long and narrow; it is well known to foreigners as having been the scene in 1863 of an attack on Kagoshima (the castle-town of the lord of Satsuma) by a British squadron. The entire coast-line teems with smaller bays and harbours, in many of which good anchorage can be found. An English man-of-war, the “Sylvia,” has for several years been employed as a surveying vessel to obtain soundings of the principal inlets and draw up charts of the coast.

The straits best known to foreigners are the Straits of Tsugaru (often miscalled Saugur in maps), which separate Yezo from the northern portion of the main island; the Straits of Akashi and of Idzumi, near the island of Awaji, at the eastern entrance of the “Inland Sea”; and the Straits of Shimonoséki, at the extreme western end of that sea, separating the main island from Kiushiu. The attack on Shimonoséki in 1864 by an allied squadron of English, French, Dutch, and American vessels, in retaliation for injuries inflicted upon foreign shipping passing through the straits by the batteries erected by the lord of Chυshiu (in which province Shimonoséki is situated) is a matter of historical note. The current in these straits is so swift that vessels have difficulty in stemming it unless under steam.

It will suffice to name a few of the almost countless promontories and capes along the coast. On the extreme north of the main island we have Riuhi-zaki and Fujishi-zaki in the Tsugaru Straits. Inuboyé no saki lies on the east coast just below the mouth of the Tonégawa. Su-saki in Awa and Miura no misaki (called by foreigners Cape Sagami) mark the entrance to the Bay of Yedo. Cape Idzu is in the province of that name, and at the southern extremity of the province of Kishiu are Idzumo-zaki and Shiwo no misaki Muroto-zaki and Ashizuri no misaki are the chief promontories on the south coast of the island of Shikoku, both being situated in the province of Tosa. Tsutsui-zaki in Hiuga, and Sata no misaki (better known to Europeans as Cape Chichakoff) in Osumi are the extreme southern points of the island of Kiushiu. In the island of Yezo there are several noticeable promontories.

The number of harbours and trading-ports called by the natives o-minato (“large harbours”) is stated to be fifty-six, but many of these would no doubt be inaccessible to foreign vessels of heavy tonnage. They are, however, admirably adapted for the accommodation of coasting junks and fishing craft, and these vessels have no lack of places of refuge in heavy weather. In many instances the entrances are blocked by one or more small islands or rocks, which render the anchorage within even more secure. In Yezo the port of Matsumae is the one best known. The Bay of Yedo abounds with harbours, some being situated within the mouths of the rivers. In Idzu, Shimoda is one that deserves special mention; the water is there very deep, and it is a common occurrence for vessels beating up towards the entrance of Yedo Bay to seek shelter in it. Shimidzu in Suruga is also a well-known place; a long sandy promontory covered with fir trees defends the port from the sea on the south. In the province of Shima are Toba and Matoya, both magnificent harbours. The “Inland Sea” is, of course, especially rich in this respect, the harbour of Mitarai, between two islands near the province of Aki, being a favourite place of call. In Shikoku, Takamatsu in Sanuki is the best known. Kiushiu is abundantly supplied, Kagoshima in Satsuma being one of the largest and best. The harbours on the north-west coast of the main island are also numerous, and each of the islands Tsushima, Iki, and Sado possesses one. The ports thrown open to foreign trade since the year 1859 are Yokohama, Hiôgo (Kobe), and Niigata on the main island, Nagasaki in Kiushiu, and Hakodaté in Yezo.

Mountains.— Japan, as might reasonably be expected in a country where volcanoes are so numerous, is very hilly; and in some districts there are many mountains of considerable height. The most extensive plains are those of the Kuantô and Echigo, and the north of Ôshiu. The provinces of Mikawa, Mino, and Owari are also very flat. Half-way between Tokio (Yedo) and Kioto lies the great watershed of the east of Japan, the table-land of Shinano, elevated some 2500 feet above the level of the sea. The ridges around or forming part of it are very lofty, particularly those of the province of Hida. The plain of Yedo lies to the east of this table-land, about 1800 feet below, while to the north the hills gradually slope away to the province of Echigo. Another range of considerable height runs due north from Aidzu to Tsugaru, thus dividing the old provinces of Ôshiu and Déwa. The province of Kai is almost entirely surrounded by mountains, and the hill scenery in Kishiu and near Kioto is exceedingly fine. Shikoku possesses some large ridges, and the south of Kiushiu, especially in the provinces of Higo and Hiuga, is also by no means deficient. Even in the wide rice-plains throughout the country there may often be seen minor elevations or hills, rising abruptly, in some cases to a considerable height. The mountain best known to foreigners is Fujisan,—commonly, but most erroneously, termed Fusiyama or Fusi-no-yama in geographical works. It rises more than 12,000 feet above high-water level, and is in shape like a cone; the crater is 500 feet deep. It stands on the boundary line of the three provinces of Kai, Suruga, and Sagami, and is visible at a considerable distance seaward. It is regarded by the natives as a sacred mountain, and large numbers of pilgrims make the ascent to the summit at the commencement of summer. The apex is shaped somewhat like an eight-petaled lotus flower, and offers from three to five peaks to the view from different directions; it is visible from no less than thirteen different provinces. Though now apparently extinct, it was in former times an active volcano, and Japanese histories mention several very disastrous eruptions. The last of these occurred in 1707, when the whole summit burst forth into flames, the rocks were shattered and split by the heat, and ashes fell even in Yedo (about 60 miles distant in a direct line) to a depth of several inches. After Fuji-san may be mentioned Gassan in the province of Uzen, Mitaké in Shinano, the Nikko range in Shimotsuké, Ôminé in Yamato, Hakusan in Kaga, Tatéyama in Etchiu, Kirish-ima-yama in Hiuga, Asosan in Higo, Tsukuba-san in Hitachi, Onsen-ga-také in Hizen, Asama-yama in Shinano,* Chôkaizan in Ugo, and Iwaki in Michinoku. There are several active volcanoes in the country, that best known to foreigners being Asama-yama. This mountain is 8500 feet in height. The earliest eruption of which records now exist seems to have taken place in 1650; after that the volcano was only feebly active for one hundred and thirty-three years, when there occurred a very severe eruption in 1783. Even so lately as 1870 there was a considerable emission of volcanic matter, at which time, also, violent shocks of earthquake were felt at the treaty port of Yokohama. The crater is very deep, with irregular rocky walls of a sulphury character, from apertures in which sulphurous fumes are constantly sent forth. At present very little is known in regard to the heights of the mountains, but the subject is one that has attracted the attention of foreign residents in Japan for several years past. The following is an approximate estimate :—

[table]

Rivers.— The rivers of Japan, although very numerous, are in no case of any great length. This of course is easily explained by the fact that the islands are narrow and hilly. The longest and widest river is the Tonégawa, which rises in the province of Kôdzuké, and flows due east to the Pacific, throwing off, however, at Sékiyado in Shimôsa, a branch that flows into Yedo Bay near the capital. The length of the Tonégawa is over 170 miles. At Sékiyado (which is a large and thriving river-port) the water is no less than 40 feet in depth, while a few hundred yards above that town foot-passengers can ford the stream without any great difficulty. The Shinano-gawa and Kiso-gawa, both of which take their rise in the province of Shinano, rank next to the Tonégawa. The former flows first in a north-westerly direction, next due north, and then north-east through Echigo to the sea at Niigata; the Kiso-gawa flows to the westward and then to the south, between the provinces of Mino and Owari, and finally falls into the sea at Kuwana. The Oi-gawa rises in the south-west of Kai, and traverses the province of Tôtômi; it is less remarkable for the length of its course than for the great breadth of its bed, which near the mouth is 2∣ miles across, its current being also very swift. The Fuji-kawa, flowing due south from the mountains of Kai through the province of Suruga, is famous as being one of the swiftest streams in all Japan. In the north, the Sakata-gawa flows due west from the range of mountains separating the provinces of Uzen and Rikuzen, and enters the Sea of Japan at the town of Sakata, from which it takes its name. Nearly all the rivers are fed by countless tributary streams, which in many cases form a complete network in the lower portions of the country, and thus greatly facilitate transport from the interior to the coast. On the Tonégawa and a few other streams of greater depth small river steamers ply for several miles; but in general large flat-bottomed boats, drawing as a rule but a few inches of water, are employed. It is by no means uncommon to see boats of this description in process of construction even in remote country villages on the banks of streams in which the depth of water is but from 12 to 18 inches at ordinary times. Floods are of frequent occurrence, especially at the commencement of summer, when the melting of the snows on the mountain ranges causes at times an almost incredible downflow from the higher lands to the plains. These floods invariably occasion great destruction of property, as the bridges spanning the rivers are only built of wood and turf, supported by piles. In some localities, notably in the western portion of the province of Shimôsa, traversed by the southern branch of the Tonégawa, large tracts of rice-land are almost entirely destroyed by the fine sand from the bed of the river, swept over the fields during inundations. In addition to boats, long rafts of timber are constantly to be seen descending the larger rivers; the logs are floated down in a rough state, to be afterwards thinned and sawn up at the seaport towns where the timber trade is carried on.

Lakes.— Japan contains a large number of lakes, but only one—the Biwa Lake, in the province of Ômi—is worthy of special notice on account of its size. Its length is about 50 miles, and its greatest breadth about 20 miles. At a village called Katada, some 10 miles from its southern extremity, it suddenly contracts to a breadth of only a mile and a half, after which it again slightly expands. This lake derives its name from a fancied resemblance to the biwa or Japanese lute; the scenery around it is particularly beautiful, and it is a favourite resort for sightseers from Kioto. An ancient Japanese legend asserts that in the year 286 B.C., in the reign of the emperor Kôrei, there occurred a terrible earthquake, when the earth opened and Lake Biwa was formed; at the same time rose the mountain called Fuji-san. In Ômi there is a small hill called Migami, which in shape slightly resembles Fuji-san, and this fact is quoted by the natives in support of the theory connecting the lake λ with the sacred mountain; and the inhabitants of Ômi were...

The beautiful lacquer work of Japan owes its hardness and durable qualities solely to the natural varnish which forms the basis of the lacquer. That varnish is simply an exudation from a tree (Rhus vemicifera) cultivated for the sake of this product throughout a wide area in Japan. The varnish is obtained by making incisions in the bark of the tree, from which a mingled clear and milky juice flows abundantly, which on exposure quickly darkens and blackens in colour. After resting in tubs for some time the juice becomes thick and viscuous, the thicker portions settle at the bottom of the vessel, and from it the thinner top stratum is separated by decanting. Both qualities are strained to free them from impurities, and when ready for use they have a rich brown-black appearance, which, however, in thin layers presents a yellow transparent aspect. This varnish when applied to any object becomes exceedingly hard and unalterable, and with it as a basis all the coloured lacquers of Japan are prepared. The black variety of the lacquer is prepared by stirring the crude varnish for a day or two in the open air, by which it becomes a deep brownish black. Towards the completion of the process a quantity of highly ferruginous water, or of an infusion of gall nuts darkened with iron, is mixed with the varnish, and the stirring and exposure are continued till the added water has entirely evaporated, leaving a rich jet black varnish of proper consistence. In preparing the fine qualities of Japanese lacquer, the material receives numerous coats, and between each coating the surface is carefully ground and smoothed. The final coating is highly polished by rubbing, and the manner in which such lacquered work is finished and ornamented presents endless variations. The durability of Japanese lacquer work is such that it can be used for vessels to contain hot tea and other food, and it is even unaffected by highly heated spirituous liquors.