The hills round the city are absolutely barren, and without growth of any kind except an occasional bush of so-called “Tartar furze.” There are, however, gardens scattered over the plain round the city, and these are planted with trees of some size (it would seem cedar, willow, and cypress). Four defiles in the encompassing hills, by which the approaches to the city pass, are defended by as many forts. We may quote the description of Hue, which, though a little vague, is vivid, and is the only passage affording anything like a picture of this city, so difficult of access :—

“The sun was about to set as we completed our descent of the innumerable zigzags of the mountain path. Issuing into a wide valley, we beheld on our right Lhasa, the famous metropolis of the Buddhist world. The multitude of aged trees which encircle the city as with a girdle of foliage, the lofty white houses, terminating in flat roofs surrounded by turrets, the numerous temples with their gilt canopies, the Buddhala [Pοlαlα], crowned by the palace of the Dalai Lama,—all unite to give Lhasa a majestic and imposing appearance.”

The meaning of the name Lha-Sa is “God’s ground.” Formerly it used to be known to the Mongols as Baron-tala, the “right side” or western region; now, according to Hue they call it Honhe Dhot or Dehot, “Eternal Sanctuary.” In eastern Turkestan it seems to be best known as Jo, a name which properly refers to the great central temple of which we shall speak.

The city is nearly circular in form, and according to Nain Singh less than a mile in diameter. It was walled in the latter part of the 17th century, but the walls were destroyed during the Chinese occupation in 1722. The population has been estimated at 40,000 to 80,000; the last estimate perhaps including the great population of monks and students in the convents near the city.

The chief streets of the city are wide and straight, and in dry weather tolerably clean, but the inferior quarters are unspeakably filthy, and are rife with evil smells and large mangy dogs. Γart (much the greater part, according to Nain Singh) of the houses are of clay and sun-dried brick, but those of the richer people of stone and brick. All, however, are frequently white-washed, the doors and windows being framed in bands of red and yellow. In the suburbs there are houses entirely built of the horns of sheep and oxen set in clay mortar. This construction, according to Hue, is very solid and highly picturesque.

The houses generally are large, and of three stories at least. The owner of the house, with his family, occupies the upper story, whilst the two lower floors swarm with tenants. Externally the lower part of Tibetan houses generally presents lofty dead walls pierced by a few airholes only; above these rise tiers of windows with projecting balconies, and over all flat broad-eaved roofs at varying levels. According to Desideri, in the better houses there are often spacious and well-finished apartments, the principal halls, the verandas, and terraces being often paved with a composition of coloured fragments of stone set in a cement of resin, &c., which with much beating and rubbing becomes like a surface of polished porphyry. In every house there is a kind of chapel or shrine, carved and gilt, on which are set images and sacred books, and before them lamps and incense, with the usual offerings of barley, fruits, <fcc.

Lhasa is not only the nucleus of a cluster of vast monastic establishments, which attract students and aspirants to the (so-called) religious life from all parts of Tibet and Mongolia, and the seat of a quasi papacy, but is also a great place of pilgrimage, so that the streets and public spaces swarm with visitors from every part of the Himalayan plateau, and from all the steppes of Asia between Manchuria and the Balkash Lake, who come to adore the living Buddha, to seek the purgation of their sins and the promise of a happy transmigration, and to carry away with them holy relics, blessed rosaries, and all the miscellaneous trumpery which is set forth to catch the money of idle people in Asia and Europe, whether they are pilgrims or frequenters of mineral waters, whilst as usual a great traffic arises quite apart from the pilgrimage. The city thus swarms with crowds attracted by devotion and the love of gain, and presents an astonishing diversity of language, costume, and physiognomy; though, in regard to the last point, varieties of the broad face and narrow eye greatly predominate. Much of the retail trade of the place is in the hands of the women. Hue’s account of the curious practice of the Lhasa women in plastering their faces with a dark-coloured unguent is well known, but it does not rest on his authority alone.

During the month of December especially traders arrive from western China by way of Tatsienlu (Tachindo of the Tibetans), bringing every variety of silk-stuffs, carpets, china-ware, and tea; from Siningfu (commonly in Tibet and Turkestan called Siting, Ziling, or Zling, a circumstance that has caused sundry misapprehensions) come silk, gold lace, Russian goods, carpets of a superior kind, semiprecious stones, horse furniture, horses, and a very large breed of fat-tailed sheep; from eastern Tibet musk in large quantities, which eventually finds its way to Europe through Nepal; from Bhutan and Sikkim, rice; from the latter also tobacco; besides a variety of Indian and European goods from Nepal and Darjiling, and charas (resinous exudation of hemp) and saffron from Ladak and Kashmir. The merchants, who arrive in December, leave Lhasa in March, before the setting in of the rains renders the rivers impassable.

The tea importation from China is a large matter, on which an interesting paper has been written by Mr E. Baber. The tea is of the coarsest quality, derived from straggling and uncared-for trees, allowed to grow to a height of 10 feet or more, and the coarsest produce of these. This is pressed into bricks or cakes, and carried by porters. The quantity that pays duty at Tatsienlu is about 10,000,000 ft>, besides some amount smuggled. No doubt a large part of this comes to Lhasa. Tea is an absolute necessary to the Tibetan; he is miserable without it.

The chief industries of Lhasa are the weaving of a great variety of stuffs from the fine Tibetan wool; the making of earthenware (said to be of very good quality), and of the wooden porringers (varying immensely in elaboration and price) of which every Tibetan carries one about with him; also the making of certain fragrant sticks of pastille much valued in China and elsewhere.

It is curious that Tibet, though using coined money, seems never, strictly speaking, to have had a coinage of its own. Till nearly the end of last century the coinage had for a long time been derived from Nepal. That valley prior to the Gorkha domination (1768) was under three native dynasties (at Bhatgaon, Patan, and Khatmandu), and these struck silver mohurs, as they were called, of the nominal value of half a rupee. The coins were at first not struck specially for Tibetan use, but were so afterwards. These latter bore (obverse) a Nepalese emblem surrounded by eight fleurons containing the eight sacred Buddhist jewels, and (reverse) an eight-petalled flower surrounded by eight fleurons containing the names of the eight jewels in Tibetan characters. Ingots of Chinese silver were sent from Lhasa with a small proportion of gold dust, and an equal weight in mohurs was returned, leaving to the Nepal rajahs, between gold-dust and alloy, a good profit. The quality of these coins (weighing about 81 grains Troy) was low, and at last deteriorated so much that the Tibetans deserted the Nepal mints. The Gorkhas, after becoming masters of Nepal, were anxious to renew the profitable traffic in coin, and in this view sent a deputation to Lhasa, with a quantity of coin to be put in circulation. But the Gorkhas were mistrusted, and their coin refused. A coinage was then issued (it would appear once only) in Tibet for domestic use, modelled on an old Khatmandu pattern, and struck by Nepalese artists (see fig. 1). The Gorkhas, however, in 1788 and following years continued to strike coins of progressively debased quality, which were rude imitations of the old Nepalese mintage (see fig. 2), and to endeavour to force this currency on the Tibetans, eventually making the departure of the latter from old usage a pretext for war and invasion. This brought the intervention of the

Chinese, who drove the Gorkhas out of Tibet (1792), and then began to strike silver coins for Lhasa use, bearing Chinese and Tibetan characters (see fig. 3). For practical use these Tibeto-Chinese coins (of which 2j = 1 rupee, and which are known as naktang, i.e., nagskyaηg, li cash ”), are cut into aliquot parts by the guidance of the figures on them. Large lumps of Chinese silver, stamped with the imperial seal, are also used. But of late years there has been an enormous influx of Anglo-Indian rupees, so that these have become practically the currency of the country, even to the frontier of China, and are now counted, instead of being valued as bullion. They are called Peilung ch'raηlca, or chanka (probably Hind, tanka), “English (Firinghi?) coins.” Those that bear a crowned head of the queen are called Lama heads, the crown being taken for a wandering lama’s head-gear. This great influx of rupees indicates a very considerable amount of trade with India. And, in spite of the extraordinary difficulties of the road eastward from Lhasa, quantities of trifling European articles find their way even to Tatsienlu on the Chinese frontier. Mr Baber found quarter-rupees very popular as buttons, British army buttons very common, corkscrews offered for sale (though no one knew their use), and tin-plates very common, stamped with the heads of Napoleon HL, Mr Gladstone, and other celebrities.

The permanent population embraces, besides Tibetans of the country, settled families of Chinese and Kashmiris in considerable numbers, as well as people from Bhotan and Nepal, from Ladak and even from Patna. The Kashmiris and many of the other foreigners are Mohammedans, and much of the trade is in their hands. Desideri, a century and a half ago, speaks also of Armenians and even “Muscovites.” The Chinese have a crowded burial-ground at Lhasa, tended carefully after their manner. The Kashmiris, who are called KhacKhe, are an important body, and have their mosque, and a provost, at once civil and religious, who is recognized by the Government. With their turbans, their fine Caucasian features, and their beards, they strikingly contrast with the mass of other nationalities. The Nepalese (called at Lhasa, according to Hue, Pe-buη') supply all the mechanics and metal-workers. There are among them excellent gold and silversmiths; and they make the elaborate gilded canopies crowning the temples, which form so notable a feature of Lhasa. Hue describes a striking custom among the native population. Every evening, as light begins to fail, they leave off business, and form groups in the streets; all sit down and begin to chant prayer in a low voice. “The combination of religious music arising from these numerous companies produces an aggregate of vast and solemn harmony, which is exceedingly moving.”

In the middle of the city is an open space or place, in which markets are held; this is densely thronged in the afternoon and evening. On the north side, overlooking this place, is a great building which is the residence of the Gyalbo, or so-called king of Tibet. It was built at great cost by the dissolute Lama who was set up by the crafty regent Sangje Gyampo, and put to death by the Calmuck prince Latsan or Jenghiz Khan in 1706-7 (see infra); and, as the Lama used to divert himself there with the dances of the ladies of Lhasa, the palace is known as the Trasi·khang or “dancing house” (so Desideri; the word trasi cannot be identified).

Immediately west of the place stands the great temple and convent of Labrang (fLa-braηg, “Lama-house ”), regarded as the umιbilicus and centre of all Tibet, and from which all the main roads are considered to radiate. This is not merely the great metropolitan convent, sanctuary, and church-centre of Tibet, the St Peter’s or Lateran of Lamaism, but contains the palace of the government and seat of civil administration. It is believed to have been founded by the Tibetan Constantine, Srong-dsan-gampo, in the 7th century, as the shrine of one of those two very sacred Buddha images which were associated with his conversion, and with the foundation of the civilized monarchy in Tibet. From this image, called Jo, or JÛ, it is known to the Mongols as the Jo Er deni (“ the precious Lord ”) or Jo Shakyamuni (to the Chinese as Ta-shao-sz ’ , “house of the great JÛ”), and hence as Ju or Jo simply, a name used in eastern Turkestan (as already noticed) and probably in Mongolia, as a synonym of Lhasa. The temple appears to be known also as Lhasai Ghhod-khang, “offering-house of Lhasa,” and among Indian and Nepalese visitors as Machendra Nath. The Potala as a sacred centre is modern, whilst the Labrang attaches itself to the whole thread of Tibetan history and religion. On one of the walls of this temple is a picture of the famous “Master of the Law,” Hwen T’sang, the travelling doctor of Buddhism (see vol. xii. p. 418), whose journeys have in the revolution of the ages become so familiar to European students, as a mine of information on the geography and history of India during a period so clouded as the 7th century. He is represented with three of his disciples. And before the gate of the Labrang stand several monuments of antiquity, especially that famous obelisk spoken of below, which bears the inscribed record of the treaty of peace concluded in 822 between Thi-de-srong-tsan, king of Tibet, and the emperor Mo-tsung of China. Before this obelisk the apostate from Lamaism, Langdharma, brother and successor of the last-named king, was standing in proud contemplation, when a fanatic recluse, who had been stirred by a vision to avenge his persecuted faith, shot him with an arrow in the forehead.

The main building of the Labrang is three stories high. The entrance, facing eastward, forms a portico supported on six great timber columns, richly carved and gilt, whilst the walls are painted with the history of Sakya. Great folding-doors, covered with reliefs in bronze and iron, lead to the ante-hall, and from this a second gate to the cellα (so to call it) of the temple. On each side of the gate, two and two, stand colossi of the spirit-kings of the four points of heaven. Within is a great basilica, divided into naves and aisles by many pillars, whilst along each wall, north and south, are chapels or sanctuaries, fourteen to a side.

At the west end steps ascend to a quadrangular choir or chancel, on each side of which also are three chapels, and at the extremity a rectangular apse (if it may be called so), and in it is the altar or graded throne, on which stands the great image of Sakya, seen through a lattice of silver gilt,—the higher shelves or offsets of the altar being beset with small figures in precious metals of dcοtas and saints, and the lower ones with lamps burning josticks, platters holding offerings of butter and meal, flowers modelled from butter, &c. In the choir to the right (f.e., looking from the altar) is the elevated and stepped throne of the Grand Lama, laid with splendid cushions, succeeded by the nearly equal throne of the Teshu Lama of Shigatze, and then by the seats of other ecclesiastical potentates, reborn and elected, in order; on the left of the Buddha throne, opposite the Grand Lama’s, and of equal height, there is said now to be a throne for the emperor of China, then, at a lower level, that of the so-called king of Tibet, whilst the ministers of state follow opposite the inferior lamas.

In a space shut in with silver lattice, on the south side of the chancel-steps, are seen fourteen or fifteen great disks of silver, set with precious stones, on which are embossed fundamental Buddhist symbols, such as their system of cosmogony, the circle of transmigration, the births of Sakya, &c.

The great nave or central aisle of the basilica is truly hypaethral, but on the second and third apparent floors it is encompassed with colonnades or verandas, from which the women and the laity look down upon the lamas engaged in chanting the services or in other functions. The sanctuary or chancel itself towers above the rest of the building, and is crowned with a rectangular canopy or pavilion of gilt metal, which rises to a ridge serrated with fantastic figures. This canopy rests on columns which are also gilt, and from its eaves and angles hang bells that tinkle with every breeze, whilst the pillars beneath the eaves are crowned with a great frieze of basreliefs embossed in gilt metal.

This ancient temple contains a vast accumulation from the ages of gold and silver vessels, lamps, reliquaries, and precious bric-abrac of every kind, which is annually exposed to view in the spring festivities. The daily offices in the Labrang are attended by crowds of worshippers, and a sacred way which leads round it is constantly traversed by devotees who perform the circuit as a work of merit, always in a particular direction.

Besides the convent-cells, halls of study, and magazines of precious lumber, buildings grouped about the Labrang are occupied, as we have said, by the civil administration, e.g., as treasuries, customs office, courts of justice, &c.; and there are also private apartments for the Grand Lama and other high functionaries. No woman is permitted to pass the night within the precinct.

Another great and famous temple is the Bamo-chhé (“large pen or fold ”), at the north end of the city. This is also regarded as a foundation of Srong-dsan-gampo, and is said to contain the body of his Chinese wife, and the second of the primeval palladia, the image that she brought with her to the Snow-land; whence the Mongols and Chinese call it the temple of the little JÛ. The lamas of this convent, as well as of that next to be mentioned, are noted for their pretensions to and practice of magical arts, one of the degrading characteristics of the lama forms of Buddhism. The orthodox “yellow” sect indeed profess to distinguish between lawful and unlawful magical formulae, and to give degrees only in the former. The lamas of Ramo-chhé have also the ill repute of cultivating that species of doctrine which is connected, like their magic, with Tantric mysticism, and which professes to destroy sensual passion by the contemplation...