It is difficult to point out much in ancient literature which precisely answers to our modern view of the pamphlet. The libelli famosi of the Romans were simply abusive pasquinades. Some of the small treatises of Lucian, the lost Anti-Cato of Caesar, Seneca’s Apocolocyntosis written against Claudius, Julian’s Καισαρες η ^νμπόσων and Άντίοχικος η Mισoτrωγωv, from their general application, just escape the charge of being mere satires, and may therefore claim to rank as early specimens of the pamphlet.

At the end of the 14th century the Lollard doctrines were widely circulated by means of the tracts and leaflets of Wickliffe and his followers. The Ploughman's Prayer and Lanthome of Light, which appeared about the time of Oldcastle’s martyrdom, were extremely popular, and similar brief vernacular pieces became so common that it was thought necessary in 1408 to enact that persons in authority should search out and apprehend all persons owning English books. The printers of the 15th century produced many controversial tractates, and Caxton and Wynkin de Worde printed in the lesser form. It was in France that the printing press first began to supply reading for the common people. During the last twenty years of the 15th century there arose an extensive popular literature of farces, tales in verse and prose, satires, almanacs, àc., extending to a few leaves apiece, and circulated by the itinerant booksellers still known as colporteurs. These folk-books soon spread from France to Italy and Spain, and were introduced into England at the beginning of the 16th century, doubtless from the same quarter, as most of our early chap-books are translations or adaptations from the French. Another form of literature even more transient was the broadside, or single sheet printed on one side only, which appears to have flourished principally in England, but which had been in use from the first invention of printing for papal indulgences, royal proclamations, and similar documents. Throughout western Europe, about the middle of the 16 th century, the broadside made a considerable figure in times of political agitation. In England it was chiefly used for ballads, which soon became so extremely popular that during the first ten years of the reign of Elizabeth the names of no less than forty ballad-printers appear in the Stationers’ Registers. The humanist movement of the beginning of the 16th century produced the famous Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum, and the leading spirits of the Reformation period—Erasmus, Hutten, Luther, Melanchthon, Francowitz, Vergerio, Curio, and Calvin—found in tracts a ready method of widely circulating their opinions.

The course of ecclesiastical events was precipitated in England by the Supplicacyon for the Beggars (1523) of Simon Fish, answered by Sir Thomas More’s Sup-plycacwn of Soulys. In the time of Edward VI. brief tracts were largely used as a propagandist instrument in favour of the Reformed religion; political tracts were represented by the address of the rebels in Devonshire (1549). The licensing of the press by Mary greatly hindered the production of this kind of literature. From about 1570 there came an unceasing flow of Puritan pamphlets, of which more than forty were reprinted under the title of A parte of a register (London, Waldegrave, 4to). To this publication Dr John Bridges replied by a ponderous quarto, A defence of the government established in the church of England (1587), which gave rise to Oh read over D. John Bridges . . . by the reverend and ιvorthie Martin Marprelate gentleman (1588), the first of the famous Martin Marprelate tracts, whose titles sufficiently indicate their opposition to priestly orders and episcopacy. Bishop Cooper’s Admonition to the People of England (1589) came next, followed on the other side by Hay any tvorke for Cooper . . . by Martin the Metropolitane, and by others from both parties to the number of about twenty-three. The controversy lasted about a year, and ended in the discomfiture of the Puritans and the seizure of their secret press. The writers on the Marprelate side are generally supposed to have been Penry, Throgmorton, Udal, and Fenner, and their opponents Bishop Cooper, John Lilly, and Nash.

As early as the middle of the 16th century we find ballads of news; and in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. small pamphlets, translated from the German and French, and known as “news-books,” were circulated by the so-called “Mercury-women.” These were the immediate predecessors of weekly newspapers, and continued to the end of the 17th century. A proclamation was issued by Charles II., May 12, 1680, “for suppressing the printing and publishing of unlicensed news-books and pamphlets of news.”

In the 17th century pamphlets began to contribute more than ever to the formation of public opinion. Nearly one hundred were written by or about the restless John Lilburne, but still more numerous were those of the undaunted Prynne, who himself published above one hundred and sixty, besides many weighty folios and quartos. Charles I. found energetic supporters in Peter Heylin and Sir Roger LΕstrange, the latter noted for the coarseness of his pen. The most distinguished pamphleteer of the period was John Milton, who began his career in this direction by five anti-episcopal tracts (1641-42) during the Smectymnuus quarrel. In 1643 his wife’s desertion caused him to publish anonymously Doctrine and discipline of divorce, followed by several others on the same subject. He printed the Tract on Education in 1644, and, unlicensed and unregistered, his famous Areopagitica—a speech for the liberty of unlicensed printing. He defended the trial and execution of the king in Tenure of längs and magistrates (1648). The Eikon Basilike dispute was conducted with more ponderous weapons than the kind we are now discussing. When Monk held supreme power Milton addressed to him The present means of a free commonwealth and Readie and easie way (1660), both pleading for a commonwealth in preference to a monarchy. John Goodwin, the author of Obstructors of Justice (1649), John Phillipps, the nephew of Mil ton, and Abiezer Coppe were violent and prolific partisan writers, the last-named specially known for his extreme Presbyterian principles. The tract Killing no murder (1657), aimed at Cromwell, and attributed to Colonel Titus or Colonel Sexby, excited more attention than any other political effusion of the time. The history of the civil war period is told day by day in the well-known collection made by Thomason the bookseller, now preserved in the British Museum. It numbers 30,000 separate books, pamphlets, and broadsides, ranging from 1640 to 1662, and is bound in 2000 volumes. Each article was dated by Thomason at the time of acquisition. William Miller was another bookseller famous for his collection of pamphlets, which were catalogued by Tooker in 1693. Wm. Laycock printed a Proposal for raising a fund for buying them up for the nation.

The Catholic controversy during the reign of James II. gave rise to a multitude of books and pamphlets, which have been described by Peck (Catalogue, 1735) and by Jones (Catalogue, Chetham Society, 1859-65, 2 vols.). Politics were naturally the chief feature of the floating literature connected with the Revolution of 1688. The political tracts of Lord Halifax are interesting both in matter and manner. He is supposed to have written The character of a political trimmer (1689), sometimes ascribed to Sir W. Coventry. About the middle of the reign Defoe was introduced to William III., and produced the first of his pamphlets on occasional conformity. He issued in 1697 his two defences of standing armies in support of the Government, and published sets of tracts on the partition treaty, the union with Scotland, and many other subjects.

His Shortest way with the Dissenters (1702) placed him in the pillory.

Under Queen Anne pamphlets arrived at a remarkable degree of importance. Never before or since has this method of publication been used by such masters of thought and language. Political writing of any degree of authority was almost entirely confined to pamphlets. If the Whigs were able to command the services of Addison and Steele, the Tories fought with the terrible pen of Swift. Second in power if not in literary ability were Bolingbroke, Somers, Atterbury, Prior, and Pulteney. The Government viewed with a jealous eye the free use of this powerful instrument, and St John seized upon fourteen booksellers and publishers in one day for “libels” upon the administration (see Annals of Queen Anne, October 23, 1711). In 1712 a duty was laid upon newspapers and pamphlets, displeasing all parties, and soon falling into disuse. Bishop Hoadly’s sermon on the kingdom of Christ (1717), holding that the clergy could claim no temporal jurisdiction, occasioned the Bangorian controversy, which produced seventy or eighty pamphlets. Soon after this period party-writing declined from its comparatively high standard and fell into meaner and venal hands. Under George III. Bute took Dr Shebbeare from Newgate in order to employ his pen. The court part received the support of a few able pamphlets, among which may be mentioned The consideration of the German War against the policy of Pitt, and The prerogative droit de Roy (1764) vindicating the prerogative. We must not forget that although Samuel Johnson was a pensioned scribe he has for an excuse that his political tracts are his worst performances. Edmund Burke, on the other hand, has produced in this form some of his most valued writings. The troubles in America and the union between Ireland and Great Britain are subjects which are abundantly illustrated in pamphlet literature.

Early in the present century the rise of the quarterly reviews threw open a new channel of publicity to those who had previously used pamphlets to spread their opinions, and later on the rapid growth of monthly magazines and weekly reviews afforded controversialists a much more certain and extensive circulation than they could ensure by an isolated publication. Although pamphlets are no longer the sole or most important factor of public opinion, the minor literature of great events is never likely to be entirely confined to periodicals. The following topics, which might be largely increased in number, have each been discussed by a multitude of pamphlets, most of which, however, are likely to have been hopeless aspirants for a more certain means of preservation:—the Bullion Question (1810), the Poor Laws (1828- 34), Tracts for the Times and the ensuing controversy (1833-45), Dr Hampden (1836), the Canadian Revolt (1837-38), the Corn Laws (1841-48), Gorham Controversy (1849-50), Crimean War and Indian Mutiny (1854- 59), Schleswig-Holstein (1863-64), Ireland (1868-69), the Franco-German War, with Dame Europa's School and its imitators (1870-71), Vaticanism, occasioned by Mr Gladstone’s Vatican Decrees (1874), the Eastern Question (1877-80), and the Irish Land Laws (1880-82).

France.— The activity of the French press in putting forth small tracts in favour of the Reformed religion caused the Sorbonne in 1523 to petition the king to abolish the diabolical art of printing. Even one or two sheets of printed matter were found too cumbersome, and single leaves or placards were issued in such numbers that they were the subject of a special edict, September 28, 1553. An ordonnance of February 1566 was specially directed against libellous pamphlets, and those who wrote, printed, or even possessed them. The rivalry between Francis I. and Charles V. gave rise to many political pamphlets, and under Francis II. the Guises were attacked by similar means. Fr. Hotman directed his Epistre envoiée au tygre de France against the Cardinal de Lorraine. The Valcis and Henry III. in particular were severely handled in Les Hermaphrodites (c. 1605), which was followed by a long series of imitations. Between Francis I. and Charles IX. the general tone of the pamphlet-literature was grave, pedantic, and dogmatic, with few songs and an occasional political satire. From the latter period to the death of Henry IV. it became audacious, cruel, and dangerous, attended, however, with a considerable increase of political songs.

The Satyre Ménippée (1594), one of the most perfect models of the pamphlet in the language, did more harm to the League than all the victories of Henry IV. The pamphlets against the Jesuits were many and violent. Père Richeome defended the order in Chasse du renard Pasquier (1603), the latter person being their vigorous opponent Étienne Pasquier. On the death of the king the country was filled with appeals for revenge against the Jesuits for his murder; the best known of them was the Anti-Coton (1610), generally attributed to César de Plaix. During the regency of Mary de’ Medici the pamphlet changed its severer form to a more facetious type. In spite of the danger of such proceeding under the uncompromising ministry of Richelieu, there was no lack of libels upon him, which were even in most instances printed in France. These largely increased during the Fronde, but it was Mazarin who was the subject of more of this literature than any other historical personage. It has been calculated that from the Parisian press alone there came sufficient Mazarinades to fill 150 quarto volumes each of 500 pages. Eight hundred were published during the siege of Paris (February 8 to March 11, 1649). A collection of satirical pieces, entitled Tableau du gouvernement de Richelieu, Mazarin, Fouquet, et Colbert (1693) extends to 432 pages. Pamphlets dealing with the amours of the king and his courtiers were in vogue in the time of Louis XIV., the most caustic of them being the Carte Géographique de la Cour (1668) of Bussy-Rabutin. The presses of Holland and the Low Countries teemed with tracts against Colbert, Le Tellier, Louvois, and Père Lachaise. The first of the ever-memorable Provinciales appeared on January 23, 1656, under the title of Lettre de, Louis de Montalie à un provincial de ses amis, and the remaining eighteen came out at irregular intervals during the next fifteen months. They excited extraordinary attention throughout Europe. The Jesuit replies were feeble and ineffectual. John Law and the schemes of the bubble period caused much popular raillery. During the long reign of Louis XV. the distinguished names of Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Diderot, D’Alembert, D’Holbach, Helvetius, and Beaumarchais must be added to the list of writers in this class.

The preliminary straggle between the parliament and the crown gave rise to hundreds of pamphlets, which grew still more numerous as the Revolution approached. Linguet and Mirabeau began their appeals to the people. Camille Desmoulins came into notice as a publicist during the elections for the states-general; but perhaps the piece which caused the most sensation was the Qu'est ce que le Tiers État (1789) of the Abbé Sieyès. The Domine salvum fac Regem and Pange lingua (1789) were two royalist brochures of unsavoury memory. The financial disorders of 1790 occasioned the Effets des assignats sur le prix du pain of Dupont de Nemours; Necker was attacked in the Criminelle Neckerologie of Marat; and the Vrai miroir de la noblesse dragged the titled names of France through the mire. The massacre of the Champ de Mars, the death of Mirabeau, and the flight of the king in 1791, the noyades of Lyons and the crime of Charlotte Corday in 1793, and the terrible winter of 1794 have each their respective pamphlet literature, more Or less violent in tone. Under the consulate and the empire the only writers of note who ventured to seek this method of appealing to the world were Madame de Staël, B. Constant, and Chateaubriand. The royalist reaction in 1816 was the cause of the Pétition of Paul Louis Courier, the first of those brilliant productions of a master of the art. He gained the distinction of judicial procedure with his Simple Discours in 1821, and published in 1824 his last political work Le pamphlet des pamphlets, the most eloquent justification of the pamphlet ever penned. The Mémoire d consulter of Montlosier attacked the growing power of the Congrégation. The year 1827 saw an augmentation of severity in the press laws and the establishment of the censure. The opposition also increased in power and activity, but found its greatest support in the songs of Béranger and the journalism of Mignet, Thiers, and Carrel. Μ. de Comenin was the chief pamphleteer of the reign of Louis-Philippe. His Oui et non (1845), Feu, feu (1846), and Livre des orateurs, par Timon, were extremely successfuL The events of 1848 gave birth to a number of pamphlets, chiefly pale copies of the more virile writings of the first revolution. Among the few men of power Louis Veuillot was the Père Duchesne of the clericals and Victor Hugo the Camille Desmoulins or Marat of the republicans. After 1852 there was no lack of venal apologies of the coup d’état. Within more recent times the second empire suffered from many bitter attacks, among which may be mentioned the Lettre sur l’histoire de France (1861) of the Duc d’Aumale, Propos de Labiénus (1865) of Rogeard, Dialogue aux enfers (1864) of Maurice Joly and Ferry’s Comptes fantastiques d’Haussmann (1868).

Literature. — In the article Libraries will be found references to collections of pamphlets in public libra; les. An excellent catalogue by W. Oldyβ of those in the Harleian Library is added to the 10th volume of the edition of the Miscellany by T. Park; and in the Biblioteca volante di O. Cinelli, 2d ed., 1734- 47, 4 vols. 4to, may be seen a bibliography of pamphlet-literature, chiefly Italian and Latin, with notes. It is of course impossible to supply an account of all the volumes of collected pamphlets, but a few of the more representative in English may be mentioned. These are— The Phenix, 1707, 2 vols. 8vo; Morgan’s Ph<jenix Britannicus, 1732, 4to; Bishop Edmund Gibson’s Preservative against Popery, 1738, 3 vols, folio, new ed., 1848-49, 18 vols. sm. 8vo, consisting chiefly of the anti-Catholic discourses of James II.'s time; The Harleian Miscellany, 1744-53, 8 vols. 4to, new ed. by T. Park, 1808-13, 10 vols. 4to, containing 600 to 700 pieces illustrative of English history, from the library of Edward Harley, earl of Oxford; Collection of scarce and valuable tracts [known as Lord Somers' Tracts], 1748-52, 16 parts 4to, 2d ed. by Sir W. Scott, 1809-15, 13 vols. 4to, also full of matter for English history; and The Pamphleteer, 1813-28, 29 vols. 8vo, containing the best pamphlets of the day.

For tlιe derivation of the word pamphlet consult Skcat’s Etymological Diet.·, Pegge’s Anonymiana; Notes and Queries, 3d series, iv. 315, 379, 462, 482, v. 167, 290; 6th series, ii. 156. The general history of the subject may be traced in Μ. Davies, Icon libellorum, 1715; W. Oldys, “History Of the Origin of Pamphlets,” in Morgan's Phoenix Brit, and Nichols's Lit. Anecdotes; Dr Johnson’s Introduction to the Harleian Miscellany; D’Israeli, Amenities of Literature; Revue des Deux Mondes, April 1, 1846; Irish Q. Review, vii. 267; Edinb. Rev., Oct. 1855; Huth's Ancient Ballads and Broadsides (Philoblblon Soc.); Maskell, Martin-Marprelate Controversy; T. Jones, Cat....

Pamphylia is in one respect a country of peculiar character: although it consists almost entirely of a plain, extending from the slopes of Mount Taurus to the sea, this plain, though presenting an unbroken level to the eye, does not consist, as in most similar cases, of alluvial deposits, but is formed almost wholly of travertine. “The rivers pouring out of the caverns at the base of the Lycian and Pisidian ranges of the Taurus come forth from their subterranean courses charged with carbonate of lime, and are continually adding to the Pamphylian plain. They build up natural aqueducts of limestone, and after flowing for a time on these elevated beds burst their walls and take a new course. Consequently it is very difficult to reconcile the accounts of this district, as transmitted by ancient authors, with its present aspect, and the distribution of the streams which water it. By the sea-side the travertine forms cliffs from 20 to 80 feet high” (Forbes’s Lycia, vol. ii. p. 188). Strabo describes a river which he terms Catarractes as a large stream falling with a great noise over a lofty cliff, but for the reason above given it cannot now be identified with certainty. He places it between Olbia and Attalia, where there is now no river of any importance. East of the latter city is the Cestrus, and beyond that again the Eurymedon, both of which are considerable streams, navigable for some distance from the sea. Near the mouth of the latter is a lake called Caprias, mentioned by Strabo, but it is a mere salt marsh.

The chief towns on the coast are—Olbia, the first town in Pamphylia, near the Lycian frontier; Attalia, founded by Attalus II., king of Pergamus, which still retains the name of Adalia, and is the principal port in this part of Asia Minor; and Side, about 15 miles east of the Eurymedon. On a hill above that river, some distance inland, stood Aspendus, and in a similar position above the river Cestrus was Perga, celebrated for its temple of Artemis. Between the two rivers, but somewhat farther inland, stood Sylleum, a strong fortress, which even ventured to defy the arms of Alexander. None of these towns are historically known to have been Greek colonies; but the foundation of Aspendus was traditionally ascribed to the Argives, and Side was said to be a colony from Cyme in Aeolis. But it is certain that the inhabitants, even of these towns, retained little of a Hellenic character, and spoke a semi-barbarous dialect. The legend related by Herodotus and Strabo, which ascribed the origin of the Pamphylians to a colony led into their country by Amphilochus and Calcha¾,after the Trojan War, is merely one of those mythical fictions current among the Greeks with regard to so many non-Hellenic races. The coins of Aspendus, though of Greek character, present us with legends in a barbarous dialect.

The Pamphylians never appear in history as an independent people. They are first mentioned among the nations subdued by the kings of Lydia, and afterwards passed in succession under the dominion of the Persian and Macedonian monarchs. After the defeat of Antiochus III. in 190 b.c., they were included among the provinces annexed by the Romans to the dominions of Eumenes, king of Pergamum; but at a somewhat later period they joined with their neighbours the Pisidians and Cilicians in their piratical ravages, and their port of Side became the chief centre of the naval power of these freebooters, and the place where the captives were sold as slaves. Pamphylia was for a short time included in the dominions of Amyntas, king of Galatia, but after the death of that monarch lapsed into the ordinary condition of a Roman province, and its name is not again mentioned in history.

Originally a town of the Vascones, Pamplona was rebuilt in 68 b.c. by Pompey the Great, whence the name Pompaelo or Pompeio (Strabo). It was captured by Euric the Goth in 466 and by the Franks under Childebert in 542; it was dismantled by Charlemagne in 778, but repulsed the emir of Saragossa in 907. In the 14th century it was greatly strengthened and beautified by Charles III., who built a citadel on the site now occupied by the Plaza de Toros and by the Basilica de S. Ignacio, the church markingthe spot where Ignatius Loyala received his wound in defending the place against André de Foix in 1521. From 1808 it was occupied by the French until taken by Wellington in 1813. In the Carlist war of 1836-40 it was held by the Cristinos, and in 1875-76 it was more than once attacked, but never taken, by the Carlists.