During this period he first began to assemble his friends together for evening discussions on the absurdities of idolatry, and he also issued his first work, Tuhfat-al Muwalddddin (“A Gift to Monotheists ”). This treatise was in Persian, with an Arabic preface, and was a bold protest against superstition and priestcraft. These proceedings brought on him much hostility, and even persecution, and in 1814 he retired to Calcutta for greater safety. Here he soon established a little Friendly Society {Atmiya Sabhd), which met weekly to read the Hindu Scriptures and to chant monotheistic hymns. In 1816 he translated the VedAnta into Bengali and Hindustani, following this by a series of translations from the Upani-shads into Bengali, Hindustani, and English, with introductions and comments of his own. These works he published at his own expense and disseminated widely among his countrymen. His writings excited much opposition and gave rise to numerous controversies, in which his ability, tact, and learning rendered him fully a match for his antagonists. But the deadliest blow which he inflicted upon Hindu superstition was his effective agitation against the rite of suttee, the burning of living widows on the funeral piles of their deceased husbands. In 1811 he had been a horrified witness of this sacrifice in his elder brother’s family, and had vowed never to rest until he had uprooted the custom. He exposed the hollow pretences of its advocates in elaborate pamphlets, both in Bengali and English, and pressed the matter in every possible way, till at last the tide of public feeling turned, and on December 4, 1829, Lord William Bentinck issued a regulation abolishing suttee throughout all the territories subject to Fort William. RAmmohun was an active politician and philanthropist. He built schoolhouses and established schools in which useful knowledge was gratuitously taught through the medium both of the English and the native languages. He wrote a suggestive Bengali grammar, of which he published one version in English (1826) and one in Bengali (1833). He wrote valuable pamphlets on Hindu law, and made strenuous exertions for the freedom of the native press; he also established (1822) and mainly conducted two native newspapers, the Sambad Kaumudi in Bengali, and (if rightly identified) the Mirat-al-Akhbar in Persian, and made them the means of diffusing much useful political information. Becoming interested in Christianity, he learned Hebrew and Greek in order to read the Bible in the original languages; and in 1820 he issued a selection from the four Gospels entitled The Precepts of Jesus, the Guide to Peace and Happiness. This was attacked by the Baptist missionaries of Serampur, and a long controversy ensued, in which he published three remarkable Appeals to the Christian Public in Defence of the “Precepts of Jesusfi He also wrote other theological tracts (sometimes under assumed names) in which he attacked both Hindu and Christian orthodoxy with a strong hand. But his personal relations with orthodox Christians were never unfriendly, and he rendered valuable assistance to Dr Duff in the latter’s educational schemes. He also warmly befriended a Unitarian Christian Mission which was started in Calcutta (1824) by Mr William Adam, formerly a Baptist missionary, who, in attempting to convert Rammohun to Trinitarianism, had himself been converted to the opposite view. This Unitarian Mission, though not a theological success, attracted considerable sympathy among the Hindu monotheists, whose Atmiya SabhA had then become extinct. At last Riimmohun felt able to re-embody his cherished ideal, and on August 20, 1828, he opened the first “BrAhmya Association” {Brahma Sabha) at a hired house. A suitable church building was then erected and placed in the hands of trustees, with a small endowment and a remarkable trust-deed by which the building was set apart “for the worship and adoration of the Eternal, Unsearchable, and Immutable Being who is the Author and Preserver of the universe.” The new church was formally opened on the Ilth MAgh (January 23) 1830, from which day the BrAhma SamAj dates its existence. Having now succeeded in his chief projects, RAmmohun resolved to visit England, and the king of Delhi appointed him his envoy thither on special business, and gave him the title of rAjA. He arrived in England on April 8, 1831, and was received with universal cordiality and respect. He watched with special anxiety the parliamentary discussions on the renewal of the East India Company’s charter, and gave much valuable evidence before the Board of Control on the condition of India. This he republished with additional suggestions {Exposition of the Practical Operation of the Judicial and Revenue Systems of Indlid), and also reissued his important Essay on the Right of Hindus over Ancestral Property (1832). He visited France, and wished to visit America, but died unexpectedly of brain fever at Bristol, September 27, 1833.

His Bengali and Sanskrit works were lately reissued in one volume, by RAjnArAin Bose and A. C. VedAntabAgish (Calcutta, 1880), and bis English works will shortly be published in two volumes by Esbanchanilra Bose. NagendranAth CbattopAdhAya 1 S Bengali memoir of him (1881) is the lullest yet published.

ROYWilliam {c. 1726-1790), a famous geodesist, was employed in some of the great national trigonometrical measurements which were made during last century. In 1746, at the age of twenty, when an assistant in the office of Colonel Watson, deputy quartermaster-general in North Britain, he began the survey of the mainland of Scotland, the results of which were embodied in what is known as the “duke of Cumberland’s map.” In 1756 he obtained a lieutenancy in the 51st regiment, and proceeded with it to Germany, where his talents as a military draughtsman brought him to notice, and procured him rapid promotion. He ultimately reached the rank of major-general. In 1784, while deputy quartermaster-general at the Horse Guards, his services were called into request for conducting the observations for determining the relative positions of the French and English royal observatories. His measurement of a base line for that purpose on Hounslow Heath in 1784, which was destined to be the germ of all subsequent surveys of the Unitçd Kingdom, gained him the gold medal of the Royal Society of London. Owing to unforeseen delays, the triangulation for connecting the meridians of the two observatories was not carried out until 1787. He had completed his undertaking, and λvas finishing an account of it for the Phil. Trans, when he died in 1790.

Besides several papers in Phil. Trans., Roy was author of the work entitled Military Antiquities of the Romans in North Britain, published in 1793.

Princeps or chieftain. In England before the Conquest the Comitatus had developed or degenerated into the thegnhood, and among the most eminent and powerful of the king’s thegns, were his dishthegn, his bowerthegn, and his horsethegn or staller. In Normandy at the time of the Conquest a similar arrangement, imitated from the French court, had long been established, and the Norman dukes, like their overlords the kings of France, had their seneschal or steward, their chamberlain, and their constable. After the Conquest the ducal household of Normandy was reproduced in the royal household of England; and since, in obedience to the spirit of feudalism, the great offices of the first had been made hereditary, the great offices of the second were made hereditary also, and were thenceforth held by the grantees and their descendants as grand-serjeanties of the crown. The consequence was that they passed out of immediate relation to the practical conduct of affairs either in both state and court or in the one or the other of them. The steward and chamberlain of England were superseded in their political functions by the justiciar and treasurer of England, and in their domestic functions by the steward and chamber-lain of the household. The marshal of England took the place of the constable of England in the royal palace, and was associated with him in the command of the royal armies. In due course, however, the marshalship as well as the constableship became hereditary, and, although the constable and marshal of England retained their military authority until a comparatively late period, the duties they had successively performed about the palace had been long before transferred to the master of the horse. Under these circumstances the holders of the original great offices of state and the household ceased to attend the court except on occasions of extraordinary ceremony, and their representatives either by inheritance or by special appointment have ever since continued to appear at coronations and some other public solemnities, such as the opening of the parliament or trials by the House of Lords.

The materials available for a history of the royal household are somewhat scanty and obscure. The earliest record relating to it is of the reign of Henry II., and is contained in the Blaxk Book of the Exchequer. It enumerates the various inmates of the king’s palace and the daily allowances made to them at the period at which it was compiled. Hence it affords valuable evidence of the antiquity and relative importance of the court offices to which it refers, notwithstanding that it is silent as to the functions and formal subordination of the persons who filled them. In addition to this record we have a series of far later, but for the most part equally meagre, documents bearing more or less directly on the constitution of the royal household, and extending, with long intervals, from the reign of Edward III. to the reign of William and Mary. Among them, however, are what are known as the Black Book of the Household and the Statutes of Eltham, compiled the first in the reign of Edward IV. and the second in the reign of Henry VIlI., from which a good deal of detailed information may be gathered concerning the arrangements of the court in the 15th and lGth centuries. The Statutes of Eltham were meant for the practical guidance merely of those who were responsible for the good order and the sufficient supply of the sovereign’s household at the time they were issued. But the Black Book of the Household, besides being a sort of treatise on princely magnificence generally, professes to be based on the regulations established for the governance of the court by Edward III., who, it affirms, was “the first setter of certeynties among his domesticall meyne, upon a grounded rule” and whose palace it describes as “the house of very policie and flowre of England;” and it may therefore possibly, and even probably, take us back to a period much more remote than that at which it was actually put together. Various orders, returns, and accounts of the reigns of Elizabeth, James I., Charles I., Charles IT., and William and Mary throw considerable light on the organization of particular sections of the royal household in times nearer to our own. Moreover, there were several parliamentary inquiries into the expenses of the royal household in connexion with the settlement or reform of the civil list during the reigns of George III., George IV., and William IV. But they add little or nothing to our knowledge of the subject in what was then its historical as distinguished from its contemporary aspects. So much, indeed, is this the case that, on the accession of Queen Victoria, Chamberlayne’s Present State of England, which contains a catalogue of the officials at the court of Queen Anne, was described by Lord Melbourne the prime minister as the “only authority” which the advisers of the crown could find for their assistance in determining the appropriate constitution and dimensions of the domestic establishment of a queen regnant.

In its main outlines the existing organization of the royal household is essentially the same as it was under the Tudors or the Plantagenets. It is now, as it was then, divided into three principal departments, at the head of which are severally the lord steward, the lord chamber-lain, and the master of the horse, and the respective provinces of which may be generally described as “below stairs,” “above stairs,” and “out of doors.” But at present, the sovereign being a queen, the royal household is in some other respects rather differently arranged from what it would be if there were a king and a queen consort. λVhen there is a king and a queen consort there is a separate establishment “above stairs” and “out of doors” for the queen consort. She has a lord chamberlain’s department and a department of the master of the horse of her own, and all the ladies of the court from the mistress of the robes to the maids of honour are in her service. At the commencement of the reign of Queen Victoria the two establishments were combined, and on the whole considerably reduced. Hence the royal household, although it is of course much larger than that of a queen consort would be, is also appreciably smaller than that of a king and queen consort together has been since the reigning family acceded to the throne.

I. Department of the Lord Steward of the Household— The hall; the kitchen, ewry, and pantry; the wine, beer, and coal cellars; and the almonry are in the lord steward’s department. The lord steward is the first dignitary of the court, and presides at the Board of Green Cloth, where all the accounts of the household are examined and passed. He is always a member of the Government of the day, a peer, and a privy councillor. He receives his appointment from the sovereign in person, and bears a white staff as the emblem and warrant of his authority. In his department the treasurer and comptroller of the household are the officers next in rank to him. They also sit at the Board of Green Cloth, carry white staves, and belong to the ministry. They are always peers or the sons of peers, and privy councillors. But the duties which in theory belong to the lord steward, treasurer, and comptroller of the household are in practice performed by the master of the household, who is a permanent officer and resides in the palace. It is he who really investigates the accounts and maintains discipline among the ordinary servants of the royal establishment. He is a white-staff officer and a member of the Board of Green Cloth but not of the ministry, and among other things he presides at the daily dinners of the suite in waiting on the sovereign. Irt the lord steward’s department are the secretary and three clerks of the Board of Green Cloth; the coroner and paymaster of the household; and the officers of the almonry, namely, the hereditary grand almoner, the lord high almoner, the sub-almoner, the groom of the almonry, and the secretary to the lord high almoner.

II. Department of the Lord (Chamberlain of the Household.— The bedchamber, privy chamber, and presence chamber, the wardrobe, the housekeeper’s room, and the guardroom, the metropolitan theatres, and the chapels royal are in the lord chamberlain’s department. The lord chamberlain is the second dignitary of the court, and is always a member of the Government of the day, a peer, and a privy councillor. He carnes a white staff, and wears a golden or jewelled key, typical of the key of the palace, which is supposed to be in his charge, as the ensigns of his office. He is responsible for the necessary arrangements connected with state ceremonies, such as coronations and royal marriages, christenings, and funerals. All invitations to court are sent out in his name by command of the sovereign, and at drawing rooms and levees he stands next to the sovereign and announces the persons who are approaching the throne. It is also part of his duty to conduct the sovereign to and from his or her carriage. The vice-chamberlain of the household is the lord chamberlain’s assistant and deputy. He also is one of the ministry, a white-staff officer, and the bearer of a key; and he is always a peer or the son of a peer as well as a privy councillor.

When there is a king the groom of the stole comes next to the vice-chamberlain in rank and authority. At present, however, the mistress of the robes in some measure occupies the position of the groom of the stole. She is the only lady of the court who comes into office and goes out with the administration, and the duties she performs are merely occasional and formal. She is always a duchess, and attends the queen at all state ceremonies and entertainments, but is never in permanent residence at the palace. On the contrary the ladies of the bedchamber share the function of personal attendance on the sovereign throughout the year. Of these there are eight, always peeresses, and each is in waiting for about a fortnight or three λveeks at a time. But the women of the bedchamber, of whom there are also eight, appear only at court ceremonies and entertainments according to a roster annually issued under the authority of the lord chamberlain. They are usually the daughters of peers or the wives of the sons of peers, and in the old time, like the mistress of the robes and the ladies of the bedchamber, habitually assisted the queen at her daily toilette. But this has long ceased to be done by any of them. The maids of honour, whose situations are by no means sinecures, are likewise eight in number and have the same terms of waiting as the ladies of the bedchamber. They are commonly if not always the daughters Orgranddaughtersof peers, and when they have no superior title and precedence by birth are called “honourable” and placed next after the daughters of barons. The queen as a special mark of Iierfavour nominates “extra” ladies and women of the bed-chamber and maids of honour. But their position is altogether honorary and involves no charge on the civil list. There are eight lords and eight grooms, who are properly described as “of the bedchamber” or “in waiting,” according as the reigning sovereign is a king or a queen, and whose terms of attendance are of similar duration to those of the ladies of the bedchamber and the maids of honour. Occasionally “extra” lords and grooms in waiting are nominated by the queen, who, however, are unpaid and have no regular duties. The master, assistant master, and marshal of the ceremonies are the officers whose special function it is to enforce the observance of the etiquette of the court. The reception of foreign potentates and ambassadors is under their particular care, and they assist in the ordering of all entertainments and festivities at the palace. The gentleman usher of the black rod—the black rod which he carries being the ensign of his office—is the principal usher of the court and kingdom. He is one of the original functionaries of the order of the Garter, and is in constant attendance on the House of Lords, from whom, either personally or by his deputy the yeoman usher of the black rod, it is part of his duty to carry messages and summonses to the House of Commons. The gentlemen ushers of the privy chamber and the gentlemen ushers daily waiters, of whom there are four each, and the gentlemen ushers quarterly waiters and the sergeants-at-arms, of whom there are eight each, are in waiting only at drawing rooms and levees and state balls and concerts. But of the sovereign’s sergeants-at-arms there are two others to whom special duties are assigned, the one attending the speaker in the House of Commons, and the other attending the lord chancellor in the House of Lords, carrying their maces and executing their orders. The yeomen of the guard date from the reign of Henry VII., and the gentlemen-at-arms from the reign of Henry VIII. The captain of each corps is always a member of the ministry and a peer. Besides the captains, the former, now called the queen’s bodyguard, consists of a lieutenant, ensign, clerk of the cheque and adjutant, four exons, and a hundred yeomen; and the latter, once called the gentlemen pensioners, consists of a lieutenant, standard-bearer, clerk of the cheque and adjutant, a sub-officer, and forty gentlemen. The comptroller and examiner of accounts, the licenser of plays, the dean and subdean of the chapel royal, the clerk of the closet, the groom of the robes, the pages of the backstairs, of the chamber, and of the presence, the poet laureate, the royal physicians and surgeons, chaplains, painters and sculptors, librarians and musicians, amp;c., are all under the superintendence of the lord chamberlain of the household.

III. Department of the Master of the Horse.— The stables and coachhouses, the stud, mews, and kennels, are in the master of the horse’s department. The master of the horse is the third dignitary of the court, and is always a member of the Government of the day, a peer, and a privy councillor. All matters connected with the horses and hounds of the sovereign are within his jurisdiction. The master of the buckhounds, who is also one of the ministry, ranks next to him, and it is his duty.to attend the royalhunt and to head the procession of royal equipages on the racecourse at Ascot, where he presents himself on horseback in a green and gold uniform wearing the couples of a hound as the badge of his office. The hereditary grand falconer is also subordinated to the master of the horse. But the practical management of the royal stables and stud in fact devolves on the chief or crown equerry, formerly called the gentleman of the horse, who is never in personal attendance on the sovereign, and whose appointment is permanent. The clerk marshal has the supervision of the accounts of the department before they are submitted to the Board of Green Cloth, and is in waiting on the sovereign on state occasions only. Exclusive of the crown equerry there are seven regular equerries, besides extra and honorary equerries, one of whom is always in attendance on the sovereign and rides at the side of the royal carriage. They are always officers of the army, and each of them is “on duty” for about the same time as the lords and grooms in waiting. There are also three pages of honour in the master of the horse’s department, who must not be confounded with tho pages of various κinds who are in the department of the lord chamberlain. They are youths aged from twelve to sixteen, selected by the sovereign in person, to attend on her at state ceremonies, when two of them arrayed in an antique costume assist the groom of the robes in carrying the royal train.

It remains to be said that to the three ancient departments of the royal household which we have already noticed two others have been added in comparatively recent times. The departments of the private secretary and the keeper of the privy purse to the sovereign, which are for the present combined, originated no longer ago than the earlier part of the current century. Very great doubts were at one time entertained as to whether such an office as that of private secretary to the sovereign could constitutionally exist, and the privy purse itself was unknown until after the passing of Burke’s Act of 1782. As at present organized these branches of the royal household consist of the private secretary and keeper of the privy purse, two assistant private secretaries and keepers of the privy purse, aud a secretary and two clerks of the privy purse. By the statute which settled the civil list at the beginning of the current reign (1 & 2 Vict. c. 2) the privy purse was fixed at £60,000 a year, am I the salaries, allowances, and other expenses of the royal household were fixed at £303,760 a year.

On November 28, 1660, the first journal book of the society was opened with a “memorandum,” from which the following is an extract :—“Memorandum that Novemb. 28. 1660, These persons following, according to the usuall custom of most of them, mett together at Gresham Colledge to heare Mr Wren’s lecture, viz., The Lord Brouncker, Mr Boyle, Mr Bruce, Sir Robert Moray, Sir Paul Neile, Dr Wilkins, Dr Goddard, Dr Petty, Mr Ball, Mr Rooke, Mr Wren, Mr Hill. And after the lecture was ended, they did, according to the usuall manner withdrawe for mutuall converse. MTiere amongst other matters that were discoursed of, something was offered about a désigné of founding a Colledge for the promoting of Physico-Mathe-maticall Experimentall Learning.” It was agreed at this meeting that the company should continue to assemble on Wednesdays at 3 o’clock; an admission fee of ten shillings with a subscription of one shilling a week was instituted; Dr Wilkins was appointed chairman; and a list of forty-one persons judged likely and fit to join the design was drawn up. On the following Wednesday Sir Robert Moray brought word that the king (Charles II.) approved the design of the meetings; a form of obligation was framed, and was signed by all the persons enumerated in the memorandum of November 28, and by seventy-three others. On December 12 another meeting was held at which fifty-five was fixed as the number of the society,—persons of the degree of baron, fellows of the College of Physicians, and public professors of mathematics, physic, and natural philosophy of both universities being supernumeraries.

Gresham College’ was now appointed to be the regular meeting-place of the society. Sir Robert Moray was chosen president (March 6, 1661), and continued in that office until the incorporation of the society, when he was succeeded by Lord Brouncker. Iu October 1661 the king offered to be entered one of the society, and next year the society was incorporated under the name of “The Royal Society,” the charter of incorporation passing the great seal on the 15th July 1662, to be modified, however, by a second charter in the following year. The council of the Royal Society met for the first time on May 13, 1663, when resolutions were passed that debate concerning those to be admitted should be secret, and that fellows should pay Is. a week to defray expenses.

At this early stage of the society’s history one main part of their labours was the “correspondence” which was actively maintained with Continental philosophers, and it was from this that the Philosophical Transactions (a publication now of world-wide celebrity) took its rise. At first the Transactions was entirely the work of the secretary, except that it was ordered (March 1, 1664-5) “that the tract be licensed by the Council of the Society, being first reviewed by some of the members of the same.” The first number, consisting of sixteen quarto pages, appeared on Monday 6th March 1664-5. In 1750 four hundred and ninety-six numbers or forty-six volumes had been published by the secretaries. After this date the work was issued under the superintendence of a committee, and the division into numbers disappeared. At present (1885) one hundred and seventy-five volumes have been completed.

Another matter to which the society turned their attention was the formation of a museum, the nucleus being “the collection of rarities formerly belonging to Mr Hubbard,” which, by a resolution of council passed February 21, 1666, was purchased for the sum of £100. This museum, at one time the most famous in London, was presented to the trustees of the British Museum in 1781, upon the removal of the society to Somerset House.

After the Great Fire of London in September 1666 the apartments of the Royal Society in Gresham College were required for the use of the city authorities, and the society were therefore invited by Henry Howard of Norfolk to meet in Arundel House. At the same time he presented them with the library purchased by his grandfather Thomas, earl of Arundel, and thus the foundation was laid of the magnificent collection of scientific works, probably not far short of 45,000 volumes, which the society at the present time possesses. Of the Arundel MSS. the bulk was sold to the trustees of the British Museum in 1830 for the sum of «£3559, the proceeds being devoted to the purchase of scientific books. These MSS. are still kept in the museum as a separate collection.

Under date December 21, 1671, the journal-book records that “the lord bishop of Sarum proposed for candidate Mr Isaac Newton, professor of the Inathematicks at Cambridge.” Newton was elected a fellow January 11, 1671-2, and in 1703 he was appointed president, a post which he held till his death in 1727. During his presidency the society moved to Crane Court, their first meeting in the new quarters being held November 8, 1710. In the same year they were appointed visitors and directors of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, a function which they continued to perform until the accession of William IV., when by the new warrant then issued the president and six of the fellows of the Royal Astronomical Society were added to the list of visitors.

In 1780, under the presidency of Sir Joseph Banks, the Royal Society removed from Crane Court to the apartments assigned to them by the Government in the new Somerset House, where they remained until they removed to Burlington House in 1857. The policy of Sir Joseph Banks was to render the fellowship more difficult of attainment than it had been, and the measures which he took for this purpose, combined with other circumstances, led to the rise of a faction headed by Dr Horsley. Throughout the years 1783 and 1784 feeling ran exceedingly high, but in the end the president was supported by the majority of the society. An account of the controversy will be found in a tract entitled An AUthentic Narrative of the Dissensions and Debates in the Royal Society. In connexion with this policy of Sir Joseph Banks may be mentioned a further step in the same direction taken in the year 1847, when the number of candidates recommended for election by the council was limited to fifteen, and the election was made annual. Concurrently, however, with this gradual narrowing of the Royal Society’s boundaries was the successive establishment of other scientific bodies. The founding of the Linnean Society in 1788 under the auspices of several fellows of the Royal Society was the first instance of the establishment of a distinct scientific association under royal charter. The Geological Society followed in 1807, and the Royal Astronomical Society in 1820. The Chemical, the Royal Geographical, and the Entomological are the remaining chartered scientific societies existing in London at the present time. The Royal Society continues, however, to hold the foremost place among the scientific bodies of England, not only from the number of eminent men included in its fellowship, but also from its close official connexion with the Government.

The following will serve as some indication of the variety and importance of the scientific matters upon which they have been consulted by or have memorialized the Government during the last seventy years:—1816, standard measures of length; 1817, expedition in search of North-West Passage; 1822, use of coal-tar in vessels of war; best manner of measuring tonnage of ships; 1823, corrosion of copper sheathing by sea-water; Babbage’s calculating-machine; lightning-conductors for vessels of war; 1825, supervision of gas-works; 1826, Parry’s North Polar expedition; 1832, tidal observations; 1835, instruments and tables for testing the strength of spirits; 1839, Antarctic expedition; magnetic observatories in the colonies; 1845, Franklin’s Arctic expedition; 1849-55, Government grant for scientific research; 1862, the great Melbournetelescope; 1865, pendulum observations in India; 1866, reorganization of the meteorological department; 1868, deep sea research; 1872, “Challenger” expedition; 1874, Arctic expedition; 1875, eclipse expedition; 1876, Vivisection Bill; 1877, transit of Venus expedition; 1879, prevention of accidents in mines; 1881, pendulum observations; 1882, transit of Venus; cruise of the “Triton” in Faroe Channel; 1883, borings in delta of Nile; 1884, Bureau des Poids et Mesures; prime meridian conference, &c. One of the most important duties which the Royal Society performs on behalf of the Government is the administration of the annual grant of £4000 for the promotion of scientific research. This grant originated in a proposal by Lord John

Russell in 1849 that at the close of the year the president and council should point out to the first lord of the treasury a limited number of persons to whom the grant of a reward or of a sum to defray the cost of experiments might be of essential service. This grant of £1000 afterwards became annual, and was continued until 1876. In that year an additional sum of £4000 for similar purposes was granted, and the two funds of £1000 and £4000 were administered concurrently until 1881, in which year the two were combined in a single annual grant of £4000 under new regulations. One of the most useful of the society’s undertakings of late years is the great catalogue of scientific papers,—an index, in eight quarto volumes, under authors’ names, of all the memoirs of importance in the chief English and foreign scientific serials from the year 1800 to the year 1873. The work was prepared under the direction and at the expense of the Royal Society, and was printed by H. M. Stationery Office.

A statement of the trust funds administered by the Royal Society will be found in their published Proceedings under date November 30th of each year, and the origin and history of these funds will be found in Weld’s History of the Royal Society, and in the late William Spottiswoode’s “Anniversary Address for 1874” (Proc. Roy. Soe., xxiii. p. 49). The income of the society is derived from the annual contributions and composition fees of the fellows, from rents, and from interest on various investments. The balance-sheet and an account of the estates and property are published in the Proceedings at each anniversary. Four medals (a Copley, two Royal, and a Davy) are awarded by the society every year, and the Rumford medal in alternate years. The first of these originated in a bequest by Sir Godfrey Copley (1709), and is awarded “to the living author of such philosophical research, either published or communicated to the society, as may appear to the council to be deserving of that honour”; the author may be an Englishman or a foreigner. The Rumford medal originated in a gift from Count Rumford in 1796 of £1000 3 per cent, consols, for the most important discoveries in heat or light made during the preceding two years. The Royal medals were instituted by George IV., and are awarded annually for the two most important contributions to science published in the British dominions not more than ten years nor less than one year from the date of the award. The Davy medal was founded by the will of Dr John Davy, F.R.S., the brother of Sir Humphry Davy, and is given annually for the most important discovery in chemistry made in Europe or Anglo-America. An enumeration of the awards of each of the medals will be found at the end of the list of fellows which is published annually by the society.

Under the existing statutes of the Royal Society every candidate for election must be recommended by a certificate in writing signed by six or more fellows, of whom three at least must sign from personal knowledge. From the candidates so recommended the council annually select fifteen by ballot, and on the first Thursday in June the names so selected are submitted to the society in the form of a printed balloting-sheet with space left for erasure and substitution of names. Princes of the blood may, however, be proposed at any ordinary meeting and put to the vote on the same day, and any member of H. M. privy council may be balloted for on the third ordinary meeting from the day upon which his certificate is read. Foreign members, not exceeding fifty, may be selected by the council from among men of the greatest scientific eminence, and proposed to the society for election. Every member of the privileged class is liable to an admission fee of £10 and an annual payment of £4; other fellows pay £3 per annum. The composition for annual payments is £60.

The anniversary meeting for the election of the council and officers is held on St Andrew’s Day. The council for the ensuing year, out of which are chosen the president, treasurer, principal secretaries, and foreign secretary, must consist of eleven members of the existing council and ten fellows who are not members of the existing council. These are nominated by the president and council previously to the anniversary meeting. The session of the society is from November to June; the ordinary meetings are held every Thursday during the session, at 4.30 P.M. The selection for publication from the papers read before the society is made by the “Gommittee of Papers,” which consists of the members of the council for the time being aided by referees. The papers so selected are published either in the Philosophical Transactions (4to) or the Proceedings of the Royal Society (8vo), and one copy of each of these publications is presented gratis to every fellow of the society and to the chief scientific societies throughout the world.

The making and repealing of laws is vested in the council, and in every case the question must be put to the vote on two several days of their meeting.

The text of the charters of the Royal Society is given in the appendix to weld's History of the Iloyal Society, and in the same work will be found Iistsof the presidents, treasurers, secretaries, and assistant-secretaries from the foundation to the year 1845. Appendix IV. to Thomson's Historyofthe Royal Society (1S12) gives a chronological list of all the fellows down to the year 1812 with dates of birth, election, admission, and death, and an alphabetical index to the same,

Other histories are Bishop Sprat’s (1667), which consists largely of a defence of the society against the attacks of α priori philosophers, and Dr Birch's (1756), which treats mainly of the society’s scientific work. (H. R.*)

Royan, whose inhabitants were Protestants, Iiad to sustain in 1622 an eight days’ siege by the troops of Louis XIII. As late as the end of last century it was but a “bourg” of about one thousand inhabitants, noticeable only for its priory, where Brantôme wrote a portion of his Chronicles. The prosperity of the place dates from the Restoration, when steamboat communication was established with Bordeaux. The question of making of Royan the seaport for Bordeaux has often been mooted, but as yet the harbour is still a merely tidal one and is dry at low water. The sardine, here known by the name of royan, is caught by the local fishermen.

As a philosopher, Royer-Collard is not distinguished either by originality or profundity; but he possesses a certain importance as having transplanted to France the philosophy of common sense. He has Iiimself left no philosophical writings except some fragments which appear in Jouil'roy’s edition of Reid; but by his example and teaching he founded the school which has been variously named the Scoto-French, the eclectic, the spiritualistic, or the psychological. Maine de Biran, Cousin to some extent, and Jouffroy in a closer way, as well as Janet and others at the present day, are the chief representatives of the school. The name “Spiritualisme,” which is perhaps the commonest designation, expresses the tenacity with which, in opposition to the dominant Sensationalistic materialism of France, it upholds the doctrine of a spiritual Ego as a fact of consciousness. The title psychological, however, would be preferred by the philosophers themselves as describing their method, and the basis on which they claim to have erected their philosophy. Philosophy tends for them, as for Reid and Stewart, to become a classification of isolated facts of consciousness.

Several biographies of Royer-Collard have been published. Barante, Vie politique de Al. Royer-Collard, ses discours, et ses écrits, 1861, is the fullest. Others are by Philippe and Lacombe. In addition may be mentioned Aleinoires sur Royer-Collard, by his nephew Genty de Bussy.

The work on which his reputation chiefly rests is the Illustrations of the Botany and other branches of Natural History of the Himalaya Mountains, and of the Flora of Cashmere, in 2 vols. 4to, begun in 1839. It contains much information on the natural products of India, especially on such as are useful in the arts or as drugs. In addition to this work, however, he wrote several others of repute, viz., An Essay on the Productive Resources of India (1840), A Manual of Mnteria Medica (1845), An Essay on the Cultivation of CoUon (1857), and on The Cordage Plants and Vegetable FibresofIndia (l855). He also published a number of papers, between 1832 and 1855, upon subjects akin to those of his larger works, in scientific journals, for the most part published in India. Among these papers are included three on geological subjects. A list of the whole will be found in the Royal Society's Catalogue of Scientific Papers.