In their modern form learned and literary societies have their origin in the Italian academies of the Renaissance; but private scientific societies have arisen chiefly during the 19th century, being due to the necessity of increased organization of knowledge and the desire among scholars for a common ground to meet and compare results and collect facts for future generalization. These bodies rapidly tend to increase in number and to become more and more specialized. Many efforts have been made from time to time to tabulate and analyse the literature published in their proceedings, as, for instance, in the indexes of Reuss (1801-21) and the Royal Society (1867-79) for physics and natural science, and those of Walther (1845) and Koner (1852-56) for history. A further development of the work done by societies was made in 1822, when, chiefly owing to Humboldt, the Gesellschaft deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte first met at Leipsic. This inauguration of the system of national congresses was followed in 1831 by the British Association for the Advancement of Science, which has served as the model for similar societies in France, America, and elsewhere. The merit of introducing the idea of migratory congresses into France is due to the distinguished archaeologist, M. Arcisse de Caumont (1802-73), who established the Association Normande, which since 1845 has held a reunion in one or other of the towns of the province for the discussion of matters relating to history, archaeology, science, and agriculture, with local exhibitions. From the same initiation came the Congrès Archéologique de France (1834), which was organized by the Société Française pour la Conservation des Monuments Historiques, the Congrès Scientifique, which held its first meeting at Caen in 1833 (directed by the Institut des Provinces), and the Congrès des Sociétés Savantes des Départements, which for many years after 1850 held its annual sittings at Paris. The idea received the sanction of the French Government in 1861, when a Congrès des Sociétés Savantes was first convoked at the Sorbonne by the minister of public instruction. In Italy Charles Bonaparte, prince of Canino, started an association with like objects, which held its first meeting at Pisa in 1839. Russia has had an itinerant gathering of naturalists since 1867. International meetings are a natural growth from congresses in which specialists of one country or speech are alone represented. Two remarkable examples of these cosmopolitan societies are the Congrès International d'Archéologie et d'Anthropologie Préhistoriques, founded at Spezzia in I860, and the Congrès International des Orientalistes (1873). Another step towards more complete organization was taken when the Smithsonian Institution (Washington, U.S.) developed the admirable system of international exchanges of its publications, as well as of other works and specimens, among societies and individuals. The Institution has agents in every part of the globe, and entertains relations with all the leading societies in the world. The International Scientific Bureau, a private enterprise, was established at Haarlem by Dr Van Baumhauer to facilitate the sending of parcels among societies and scientific men in Holland. Since 1875 the French ministry of public instruction has organized a distribution of foreign publications among societies in France. In England local scientific societies are now officially represented at the meetings of the British Association. In 1883 rules were framed for the admission of corresponding societies and for the institution of a conference of delegates to hold sittings contemporaneously with the annual meeting of the Association, for the purpose of discussing “propositions bearing on the promotion of more systematic observation and plans of operation, and of greater uniformity in the mode of publishing results,” as well as for the consideration of “matters in which the co-operation of corresponding societies is desired.” A committee was appointed in 1882 at the Montreal meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science “to confer with committees of foreign associations for the advancement of science with reference to an international convention of scientific associations;” and a fund for the purpose has been started.

It has been thought desirable to classify the societies treated of in the present article under the following headings, the first of which includes those of the widest scope, dealing with the whole range of natural history, or with archaeology and literature as well as science :—I. science generally; II. mathematics; III. astronomy; IV. physics; V. chemistry; VI. geology, mineralogy, and palaeontology; VII. meteorology; VIII. microscopy; IX. botany and horticulture; X. zoology; XI. anthropology; XII. sociology (embracing economic science, statistics, law, and education); XIII. medicine, surgery, &c.; XIV. engineering and architecture; XV. naval and military science; XVI. agriculture and trades; XVII. literature, archaeology, and history; XVIII. geography. I. Science generally.

United Kingdom. —First in antiquity and dignity among English societies comes the Royal Society (q. v. ) of London, which dates from 1660. In 1683 William Molyneux, the author of The Case of Ireland Stated, exerted himself to form a society in Dublin after the pattern of that of London. In consequence of his efforts and labours the Dublin Philosophical Society was established in January 1684, with Sir William Petty as first president. The members subsequently acquired a botanic garden, a laboratory, and a museum, and placed themselves in communication with the Royal Society of London. Their meetings after 1686 were few and irregular, and came to an end at the commencement of hostilities between James II. and William III. The society was reorganized in 1693 at Trinity College, Dublin, where meetings took place during several years. On 25th June 1731, chiefly owing to the exertions of Dr S. M. Madden, the Dublin Society for Improving Husbandry, Manufactures, and other Useful Arts came into existence. In January 1737 they commenced to publish the Dublin Society's Weekly Observations, and in 1746 the society was placed on the civil establishment, with an allowance of £500 a year from the Government. A charter of incorporation was granted in 1750, and seven years later the Royal Dublin Society for the first time owned a house of its own, and in the following year began the drawing school, which subsequently did so much for Irish art. Between 1761 and 1767 Government grants to the amount of £42,000 for promoting national agriculture and manufactures were distributed by the society, which claims to be the oldest scientific body in the United Kingdom after the Royal Society of London. It has published Transactions (1799- 1810); and its Proceedings (1764-75; 1848, &c.) and Journal (1858, &c.) are still issued. For the Royal Irish Academy, see Academy.

The Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh was instituted in 1771, and incorporated in 1788; it is exclusively devoted to natural history and the physical sciences. With it have been merged many other societies, such as the Chirurgo-Medical in 1796, the American Physical in 1796, the Hibernian Medical in 1799, the Chemical in 1803, the Natural History in 1812 (which brought in Brougham and Mackintosh), and the Didactic in 1813. It issues Proceedings (1858, &c. ). From the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh (1739) was developed the Royal Society of Edinburgh, whose charter is dated 29th March 1783. It was to comprise a physical and a literary class; among the members of the latter were Robertson, Hume, Burke, and Reid, and among those of the former Hutton, Black, Playfair, Dugald Stewart, and Watt. The literary division has been much less productive than the other. A second charter was obtained in 1811. The society has published Transactions (4to, 1788, &c.) and Proceedings (8vo, 1845, &c.).

The Linnean Society for the promotion of zoology and botany was founded in 1788 by Dr (afterwards Sir) J. E. Smith, in order to supplement the work of the Royal Society, and obtained a royal charter in 1802. The herbarium and collections of Linnaeus, with the founder’s additions, were purchased after his death. It removed from Sir Joseph Banks’s old house in Soho Square to Burlington House (London) in 1857, and assumed the apartments it now occupies in 1873. It has published Proceedings (1849, &c.). The Journal (8vo, 1857, &c.) and the Transactions (4to, 1791, &c. ) are divided into zoological and botanical sections. The Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Commerce, and Manufactures took its origin in 1753 from an academy established in the Strand by the landscape painter William Shipley. Attention was paid to the application of science to practical purposes, a subject passed over by the Royal Society. Exhibitions of pictures by native artists were held, and the first exhibition of the Royal Academy took place in its rooms. A fresh start in a new career was made by the Society of Arts in 1847, when it obtained a charter and the presidency of the Prince Consort. The International Exhibition of 1851 sprang from the smaller exhibitions previously held in its rooms. The East Indian section dates from 1869, the foreign and colonial and the chemical sections from 1874. Its organs have been Transactions (1783-1849) and the Journal (1853, &c. ). Sir Joseph Banks, Count Rumford, and other fellows of the Royal Society started the Royal Institution in 1799, when a site was purchased in Albemarle Street for “an establishment in London for diffusing the knowledge of useful mechanical improvements,” to “teach the application of science to the useful purposes of life.” The institution was incorporated in the following year. One of the most important epochs in the history of chemistry must be dated from the establishment of the laboratory where Davy and Faraday pursued their investigations. Belonging to the institution are foundations for professorships in natural philosophy, chemistry, and physiology. Courses of lectures on special subjects are given as well as discourses (once a week) of a more general and literary character. Its Journal has been issued since 1802. The London Institution was established on a similar basis in 1805 and incorporated in 1807. The building in Finsbury Circus was erected in 1819. The British Association for the Advancement of Science was instituted at York on 27th September 1831 in imitation of the itinerant scientific parliament held in Germany since 1822 (already referred to), and arose from a proposal by Sir D. Brewster. A meeting is held annually in one of the chief provincial towns of the United Kingdom. The object of the association is to promote science, to direct general attention to scientific matters, and to facilitate intercourse between scientific workers. Abstracts of the proceedings and reports of committees are published in the annual Report (1833, &c.). The Historical Society of Science (1841) printed a couple of volumes; and the Ray Society (1844), instituted for the printing of original and scarce old works (38 vols, have appeared) in zoology and botany, still flourishes. The Royal Colonial Institute was founded in 1868 and incorporated in 1882. It provides a place of meeting for gentlemen connected with the colonies and British India, undertakes investigations into subjects relating to the British empire, has established a museum and library, and gives lectures in its new building in Northumberland Avenue (London). It has published Proceedings since 1870. The Victoria Institute, or Philosophical Society of Great Britain, was founded in 1865 to form a connecting bond between men of science and others engaged in investigating important questions of philosophy and science, more especially those bearing upon the truths revealed in Holy Scripture. Its organ is the Journal (1867, &c.). The Balloon Society of Great Britain (1880) is not restricted to aeronautics, but deals with recent discoveries and inventions, and science generally. The foundation in 1821 of the Society for the Encouragement of the Useful Arts in Scotland, now usually known as the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, for the promotion of the useful arts and such branches of science as bear upon them was due to Sir D. Brewster, Sir J. Mackintosh, and others; it was incorporated in 1841, and has published Transactions since that year.

The leading provincial societies of Great Britain of a general character are as follows. Aberdeen, Nat. Hist. Sοc. (1863), Trans.; Phil. Sοc. (1840). Alloa, Sοc. of Nat. Hist. and Arch. (1863), Proc. (1865, &c.). Banffshire Field Club and Sc. Soc. (1880), Proc. Bath, Nat. Hist. and Antiq. Field Club (1866), Proc. (1867, &c.). Bedfordshire Nat. Hist. Soc. (1875), Trans. Belfast, Nat. Hist. and Phil. Soc. (1821), Proc. (1852, &c.); Naturalists' Field Club (1863), Proc. (1875, &c.). Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club (1831), Proc. (1834, &c.). Birkenhead, Lit. and Sc. Soc. (1857). Birmingham, Nat. Hist, and Micr. Soc. (1858), Proc. (1869, &c.); Birmingham and Midland Institute Sc. Soc. (1870), Trans. of archaeological section (1871, &c.); Phil. Soc. (1876), has a fund for promotion of original research, Proc.; Midland Union of Nat. Hist. Societies (1877), Midland Naturalist. Bolton, Lit. and Phil. Soc. (1871). Bradford, Phil. Soc. (1865), with various local societies afliliated to it. Brighton, Brighton and Sussex Nat. Hist. Soc. (1854), Ann. Reports (1855, &c.). Bristol, Museum and Library (formed by the amalgamation of the Institution for the Advancement of Sc., Lit., and the Fine Arts with the Lit. Soc., founded 1772); Naturalists' Soc. (1862), Proc. (1866, &c.). Burnley, Lit. and Sc. Club (1873), Trams. Burton-on-Trent, Nat. Hist. and Arch. Soc. (1876). Cambridge, Phil. Soc. (1819; incorporated 1832), for the promotion of philosophy and natural science, owns museum and library, Proc. (1865, &c.), Trans. (1821, &c.). Cardiff, Naturalists’ Soc. (1867), Trans. Chester, Soc. of Nat. Sc. (1871), Proc. Cork, Royal Inst. (1807), library; Cuvierian and Arch. Soc. (1836). Cornwall Royal Inst., at Truro (1818), devoted to natural philosophy, natural history, and antiquities, Journal (1864, &c.); Royal Polytechnic Soc., at Falmouth (1833; founded by the daughters of R. W. Fox and others), for the encouragement of science and the fine and industrial arts, Trans. (1835, &c.). Cumberland Assoc, for the Advancement of Lit. and Sc. (1876), provides a means of union for the local scientific societies of Cumberland and Westmoreland, Trans. Derry Nat. Hist. and Phil. Soc. (1870). Devonshire Assoc, for the Advancement of Sc. (1862). Dorset Nat. Hist. and Antiq. Club (1875). Dumfriesshire and Galloway Sc., Nat. Hist., and Antiq. Soc. (1876), Trans. Dundee, Naturalists' Soc. (1873). Eastbourne, Nat. Hist. Soc. (1867), Proc. (1869, &c.). East of Scotland Union of Naturalists' Societies (1884), Trans. Ebbw Vale, Lit. and Sc. Inst. (1850), owns laboratory. Elgin, Elgin and Morayshire Lit. and Sc. Assoc. (1836). Essex Field Club (1880), at Buckhurst Hill, Trans. Exeter, Naturalists' Club and Arch. Assoc. (1862). Glasgow, Phil. Soc. (1802), Proc. (1844, &c.); Nat. Hist. Soc. (1851), Proc. (1868, &c.); Soc. of Field Naturalists (1872), Trans. (1872, &c.). Gloucester, Lit. and Sc. Assoc. (1838). Greenock, Phil. Soc. (1861). Halifax, Phil. and Lit. Soc. (1830), museum and library. Hereford, Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club, Hereford Pomona and Trans. (1866, &c.). Hertfordshire Nat. Hist. Soc. and Field Club, formed in 1879 from the Watford Nat. Hist. Soc. (1875), Trans. High Wycombe, Nat. Hist. Soc. (1865), Magazine (1866, &c.). Hull, Lit. and Phil. Soc. (1822), Trans. (1824, &c.). Inverness, Sc. Soc. and Field Club (1875). Isle of Wight Phil. and Sc. Soc. (1850). Kent (East) Nat. Hist. Soc., at Canterbury (1858), Trans. Leeds, Phil. and Lit. Soc. (1820); Naturalists’ Club (1870), Trans. Leicester, Lit. and Phil. Soc. (1837), Trans. Lewes, Lewes and East Sussex Nat. Hist. Soc. (1864). Liverpool, Lit. and Phil. Soc. (1812; united with Nat. Hist. Soc. in 1844), Proc. (1845, &c.); Philomathic Soc. (1825), Trans.; Polytechnic Soc. (1838), Journal (1838, &c.); Naturalists' Field Club (1860). Manchester, Lit. and Phil. Soc. (1781), two sections, one physical and mathematical, the other for microscopy and natural history,—the original statements respecting the atomic theory were given by Dalton in the Memoirs (1789, &c.); Field Naturalists' and Arch. Soc. (1860), Trans.; Scientific Students Assoc. (1861). Montrose, Nat. Hist. and Antiq. Soc. (1836), museum. Newbury, District Field Club (1870), Trans. (1871, &c.). Newcastle-on-Tyne, Lit. and Phil. Soc. (1793), library; Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle Nat. Hist. Soc. (1829), a museum (opened in 1884), Trans. Norfolk, Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Soc. (1869), Trans. (1870, &c.). Nottingham, Lit. and Phil. Soc. (1864). Orkney Antiq. and Nat. Hist. Soc. (1837), museum. Oxford, Ashmolean Soc. (1828), promotes all branches of practical knowledge. Paisley, Phil. Institution (1808), free library and museum; Mr Coats presented his observatory in 1882. Penzance, Nat . Hist. and Antiq. Soc. (1839), museum, Proc. (1845, &c.). Perth, Lit. and Antiq. Soc. (1784); Perthshire Soc. of Nat. Sc. (1867), Proc. (1869, &c.), The Scottish Naturalist (1870, &c.). Plymouth, Plymouth Inst, and Devon and Cornwall Nat. Hist. Soc. (1812), museum, art gallery, and library. Richmond, Richmond and North Riding Naturalists’ Field Club (1863), Trans. Ripon, Naturalists’ Club and Sc. Assoc. (1882). Scarborough, Phil, and Arch. Soc. (1831), museum and library. Severn Valley Naturalists Field Club, at Bridgenorth (1863). Sheffield, Lit. and Phil. Soc. (1822). Shetland Lit. and Sc. Soc., at Lerwick (1861). Shropshire and North Wales Nat. Hist. and Antiq. Soc. (1835), at Shrewsbury. Somersetshire Arch. and Nat. Hist. Soc., at Taunton (1849), Proc. (1851, &c.). Southampton, Hartley Institution (founded under bequest of H. R. Hartley in 1859, incorporated 1862), for the promotion of scientific, antiquarian, and Oriental studies and the fine arts, owns a museum and library. Staffordshire (North) Naturalists' Field Club and Arch. Soc. (founded as a natural history society in 1865; enlarged 1877), holds movable meetings. Stirling, Nat. Uist. and Arch. Soc. (1878), Trans. Stockport, Soc. of Naturalists (1884), Trans. Suffolk Inst. of Arch. and Nat. Hist., at Bury St Edmunds (1848), Proc. (1848, &c.), The East Anglian (1859, &c.). Swansea, Royal Institution (founded 1835; incorporated 1883), with a museum and library, promotes natural history and applied science, literature and fine arts, local history and antiquities. Tamworth, Nat. Hist., Geolog., and Antiq. Soc. (1871). Teign Naturalists' Field Club (1858). Torquay, Nat. Hist. Soc. (1844), museum and library. Tweedside and Kelso Physical and Antiq. Soc. (1834). Warrington, Lit. and Phil. Soc. (founded in 1870 upon the Micr. Soc.). Warwickshire Nat. Hist. and Arch. Soc. (1836), has a library and geological museum; Warwickshire Field Club (1854). Whitby, Lit. and Phil,Soc.(1822), owns a museum.

Wiltshire Arch. and Nat. Uist. Soc., at Devizes (1853), Wiltshire Magazine (1853,

&c.). Windsor, Windsor and Elon Sc. Soc., Trans. Witney, Nat. Uist. and Lit. Soc. (1858). Yorkshire Phil. Soc. (1822), the museum in the grounds of St Mary’s Abbey, York, contains a remarkable collection of Roman remains; Geolog. and Polytechnic Soc. (1837), quarterly meetings in various Yorkshire towns; Naturalists' Union of the natural history and scientific societies of the county (founded in 1861 as the West Riding Consolidated Naturalists' Soc.; reorganized in 1876), the Naturalist (1876, &c.)

Africa : Cape Town, South Afr. Phil. Soc., Trails. (1878, &c.); Mauritius, Roy. Soc. of Arts and Sc., Proc. (1846, &c.)and Trans. (1848, &c.). Canada: Halifax, Nova Scotian Inst., Proc. (1863, &c.; 1867, &c.). Montreal, Nat. Uist. Soc., Canadian Naturalist (1857, &c.). Ottawa, Lit. and Sc. Soc. Toronto, Canadian Inst., Canadian Journal (1852-76), Proc. (1879, &c.). Winnipeg, Hist. and Sc. Soc. West Indies: Kingston, Roy. Soc. of Arts of Jamaica, Trans. (1854, &c.). Port of Spain, Sc. Assoc, of Trinidad, Proc. (1866, &c.). Australia and New Zealand: Adelaide, Phil. Soc., Trans. (1865, &c.); South Australian Inst. (1836), library; Roy. Soc. of S. Australia. Auckland, Auckland Inst. Brisbane, Queensland Phil. Soc. Christchurch, Phil. Inst. Hobart Town, Roy. Soc. of Van Diemen's Land, Papers (1851, &c.); Roy. Soc. of Tasmania, Monthly Notices (1869, &c.). Melbourne, Roy. Phil. Soc. of Victoria, Trans. (1855, &c.); Nat. Hist. Soc.; Zoolog. and Acclim. Soc., Proc. (1872). Sydney, Linnean Soc. of N. S. W., Proc. (1876, Ac.); Phil. Soc., Trans. (1862, &c.; 1866, &c.); Roy. Soc. of N. S. W., Trans. (1867, &c.). Wellington, New Zealand Inst., Trans. (1869, &c.).

United States. —The first scientific society in the United States originated from a Proposal for Promoting Useful Knowledge among the British Plantations, issued by Dr Franklin in 1743. In the following year the American Philosophical Society was founded at Philadelphia, with Thomas Hopkinson as president and Franklin as secretary. With it was united on 2d January 1769 another Philadelphia society, The Junto (1758), the records of which have been preserved. The American Philosophical Society is still in vigorous life, and is an exclusively scientific body and the oldest organized society in the United States for the pursuit of philosophical investigation in its broadest sense. It publishes Transactions (4 to , 1771, &c.) and Proceedings (8vo, 1840, &c.). Although not a society in the exact sense of the word, the Smithsonian Institution, the most important scientific body in America, must not be overlooked. It was...