Geology and Minerals.— As regards its geology Perthshire consists of two distinct areas, that differ from each other entirely in the rocks of which they are composed and consequently in their scenery. The larger of these regions comprises the mountainous ground and occupies the northern and by much the larger part of the county. The rocks in this region belong to the series of crystalline schists, and include varieties of gneiss, mica-schist, clay-slate, hornblende-rock, &c., with important bands of quartzite, quartz-schist, and limestone. These rocks are arranged in approximately parallel folds, the axes of which range in a general sense from south-west to northeast, the same groups of strata being repeated again and again by successive plications. The quartzites from their durability and whiteness form specially marked zones across the county, as in the ranges of Schiehallion and Ben-y-Gloe. The limestones also from their persistence afford excellent horizons for interpreting the geological structure. A notable band of them runs along the valley of Loch Tay, plunging under Ben Lawers and rising up again in Glen Lyon, whence it continues across Strath Tummel into Glen Tilt. These various crystalline rocks are believed to be prolongations of the schistose series that overlies the Lower Silurian rocks of Sutherland; but they have not yet yielded fossils. They are here and there pierced by masses of granite, porphyry, or other eruptive rocks.

The southern (or more correctly south-eastern) limit of the mountain ground is defined by a line drawn from the foot of Loch Lomond by Aberfoyle, Pass of Leny, Comrie, a little belθλv Dunkeld, and Bridge of Cally, to Lintrathen. On the southern side of this line the ground presents distinctively lowland scenery. It is occupied by the Lower Old Sandstone with its included conglomerates, flagstones, and volcanic rocks. A remarkable dislocation, which nearly coincides with the line just traced, separates the younger series of formations from the older rocks of the mountains. But here and there on the north side of the fracture, in bay-like hollows of the hills, the massive conglomerates of the Old Red Sandstone can be seen resting upon the upturned edges of the schists. These conglomerates with their associated strata appear to have been laid down in a large lake or inland sea which lay across central Scotland and northern Ireland, and was tenanted by the peculiar Old Red Sandstone fishes (Cephalaspis, àc.). A long line of active volcanoes extended through this lake. Their sites are still traceable in the Ochil and Sidlaw Hills. See Geology, vol. x. p. 343 sq. Much of the lower ground is covered with the clays, gravels, and sands left by the icesheets and glaciers that once occupied the surface. Raised beaches marking recent upheaval of the land are seen in the Firth of Tay. The larger rivers present a succession of three or more alluvial terraces. Copper ore is found in the southern Ochils and coal at their base. Ironstone is wrought at Culross. Lead and other metals are found sparingly in the neighbourhood of Tyndrum, Ben Ledi, and Glen Lyon. Roofing slates are quarried at Birnam. In many valleys there are large deposits of peat.

Agriculture.— The climate and soil of Perthshire present greater varieties than in any other county of Scotland. In the higher western regions it is very moist; and long stretches of exposed uplands alternate with finely-sheltered valleys. The arable land is chiefly in the drier eastern districts. For the most part the soil is sharp and fertile. The county, agriculturally, may be classed in four divisions: deer-forests, chiefly the wilder mountain districts; grazing and pasture lands on the hills, embracing about four-fifths of the total area; light soils in the lower undulating districts, including the north portion of Menteith and the upper portion of the principal river-valleys, specially suited for oats, barley, turnips, and potatoes; clay and carse land, chiefly in the Carse of Gowrie, which extends to about 100,000 acres, in the Carse of Stirling north of the Forth and in the lower part of Strathearn below and above Bridge of Earn. The Carse of Gowrie has as its basis the boulder clay, above which rests the blue clay proper, or peat, or the carse clay,—a mixture of sand and clay, ranging from the finest clay soil to poor whitish “end clay.” The best heavy carse land is very rich and productive, but requires to be thoroughly wrought, limed, and manured. The district is well adapted for wheat, although the area sown is decreasing. A considerable area is occupied by orchards, the light quick soil on Tayside and in the upper districts of Menteith being admirably adapted for apples.

Between 1875 and 1880 the number of holdings decreased from 5296 to 5123, although their area increased from 331,890 to 344,728 acres. Of the holdings 179 in 1880 were above 300 acres in extent, 1033 between 100 and 300 acres, 786 between 50 and 100 acres, and 3125 did not exceed 50 acres each. There are a large number of small holdings in the Highland valleys and in the neighbourhood of the villages and small towns. According to the agricultural returns for 1883 there were 344,240 acres, or only a little less than a fifth of the total area, under cultivation, 103,050 acres being under corn crops, 50,799 acres green crops, 100,631 rotation grasses, 87,064 permanent pasture, and 2696 fallow. Of the corn crops, 70,424 acres were under oats, 22,770 acres barley and here, 6238 wheat, and 3087 beans; and of the green crops, 31,059 acres were under turnips and swedes and 18,611 under potatoes. The number of horses was 13,651, of which 10,524, chiefly Clydesdales, were used solely for agricultural purposes. Cattle numbered 73,097, of which 18,755 were cows and heifers in milk or in calf. Although dairy-farming is not in itself an important industry, a large number of cows are generally kept on the lowland fanns. The cows are principally Ayrshires, but the West Highland or Kyloe breed of cattle is common in the straths and lower grounds adjoining the Highlands. Sheep in 1883 numbered 696,640. All the pasturage in the Grampians, not in deer-forests, is occupied by sheep, and there are also large sheep-runs on the Ochils. The blackfaced are principally kept in the Grampians, but there are also a large number of Cheviots, and in the lower grounds South Downs and Leicesters are common. In 1812 there were 203,880 acres under wood, of which 61,164 were planted and 142,716 natural. The area under woods in 1884 was 94,563 acres, in addition to which 424 acres were under orchards, 535 acres market-gardens, and 113 acres nurseries. In Breadalbane and Menteith there are still extensive remains of the old forest.

According to the latest return (187 2-73) the land was divided among 5737 proprietors, possessing 1,612,001 acres at an annual value of £959,365, or about Ils. 10d. an acre. Of the proprietors 4680, or nearly four-fifths, possessed less than one acre each. The following possessed upwards of 20,000 acres each, viz., duke of Athole, 194,640; earl of Breadalbane, 193,504; Baroness Willoughby d’Eresby, 76,837; trustees of marquis of Breadalbane, 40,662; earl of Moray, 40,553; Hon. Lady Menzies, 35,500; Sir A. D. Drummond Stewart, 33,274; trustees of R. Stewart Menzies, 33,000; Sir Robert Menzies, 32,784; duke of Montrose, 32,294; earl of Mansfield, 31,197; D. R. Williamson, 29,494; C. H. Drummond Moray, 24,980; Mrs Mary Stuart Robertson, 24,000; W. Μ. Macdonald, 22,600; David Carnegie, 22,205; and Lieutenant - Colonel Farquharson, 20,056.

Manufactures. — The manufacture of coarser linen fabrics is largely carried on in the towns and villages, and there are a considerable number of flour-mills. ' Cotton-works exist at Deanston and Stanley; hand - loom weaving is carried on at Auchterarder, Dunblane, Donne, Crieff, and elsewhere, and in several places the manufacture of shawls, blankets, and other fabrics. For the industries of the city of Perth see below.

Railways.— The lowland districts of the county are intersected by branches of the principal railway lines of Scotland, supplying convenient communication between all the principal towns; and by the Highland and Oban railways, supplemented by coaches and steamers on the larger lochs, the finest scenery in the county has been rendered easy of access.

Administration and Population.— Anciently the county was divided into the hereditary jurisdictions of Athole in the north, Balquhidder in the south-west, Breadalbane in the west, Gowrie in the east, Menteith in the south, Perth in the south-east, Bannoch in the north-west, and Stormont and Strathearn in the middle. These jurisdictions were abolished by the Act of 1748, and in 1795 an Act was passed dividing the county for administrative purposes into the ten districts of Auchterarder, Blairgowrie, Carse of Gowrie, Crieff, Culross, Coupar-Angus, Dunblane, Dunkeld, Perth, and Weem. The sheriffdom is divided into an eastern and a western district, the seat of the one being Perth and of the other Dunblane. The county is represented in parliament by one member, the city of Perth by one member, and Culross is included in the Stirling district of burghs. Perthshire embraces eighty-one parishes, and contains three ancient cities, Perth, formerly the capital of Scotland, and Dunkeld and Dunblane, formerly the seats of bishoprics, as was also Abernethy. The royal burghs are Perth (27,207) and Culross (380); and Auchterarder, Abernethy, and Dunblane formerly held this rank. The police burghs are Abernethy (906), Alyth (2377), Blairgowrie (4537), Callander (1522), Coupar-Angus (partly in Forfarshire), Crieff (4469), Dunblane (2186), Perth (26,951), and Rattray (2533). The population of the county in 1831 was 142,166, which by 1851 had diminished to 138,660, and by 1871 to 127,768; but in 1881 it had increased to 129,007, of whom 61,552 were males and 67,455 females. The increase has been wholly in the town population, from 44,250 (in 1871) to 49,642 (in 1881), there being a decrease in the village population from 23,321 to 22,349, and in the rural from 60,197 to 57,016. The number of persons speaking Gaelic was 14,505, or more than one-ninth of the total population.

History and Antiquities.— In the 2d century the district was divided, according to Ptolemy, among three tribes. The Damnonii inhabited Menteith, Strathearn, and Forthryfe (including the western part of Fife), and had three principal oppida—Alauna, at the junction of the Allan and Forth, guarding the entrance to the Highlands from the south; Lindum, at Ardoch; and Victoria, at Loch Orr in Fife. The Venicones inhabited part of Fife and the adjoining district of Perthshire, with the town of Orrea, probably Abernethy, at the junction of the Earn and Tay, the nearest Roman station to which was at Ardargie. The Vacomagi skirted the Highland region, and had the tθλvns of Tamea in Inchtuthil (an island in the Tay), where remains still exist, and Banatia, at Buchanty on the Almond, where there was a strong Roman station. In 83 A. r>. Agricola explored the country beyond the Forth, and in the following year probably carried his legions to the foot of the Grampians. At Mons Graupius or Granpius, whose site is not ascertained, but which is, according to the most probable conjecture (Mr Skene’s), in the district of Stormont in Perthshire, amongst the outliers of the Grampians near Meikleour, where the Cleavers Dyke and Buzzard Dykes perhaps mark the camps of Agricola and Galgacus, and the Hill of Blair the scene of battle, the Romans (according to their own accounts) defeated the tribes of Caledonia with great slaughter; but they deemed it imprudent to pursue the victory. Perthshire was accordingly left in the possession of its native tribes till its invasion by Severus in 207. The Roman road of Severus passed by Alanna to Lindum at Ardoch, where there are extensive remains of a Roman station, and thence by Strageath near Auchterarder, Dalgin Ross near Comrie, where there were prominent remains a century ago, and Buchanty, where one branch passed eastwards to the coast, and the other turned northwards over the Grampians.

As Severas renewed the wall of Antoninus, he does not appear to have retained possession of the county north of the Forth and the Clyde. Perthshire was included in the kingdom of the Southern Picts, who had their capital first at Abernethy and afterwards at Forteviot. On the burning of Forteviot by the Northmen in the 8th century the seat of the Government was changed to Scone, which continued to be the capital of Albany, the chief royal residence in Scotland, and the place where its kings were crowned, though circumstances led to James II., James III., and Mary being crowned elsewhere. But, as Perth increased in population, it became the seat of the parliament, and the favourite residence of the kings, until it was succeeded by Edinburgh in the reign of James II. In the early history of the county fall the defeat of the Danes at Luncarty in the 10th century and of Macbeth by Earl Siward at Dunsinane in 1054. To its later history, apart from incidents connected with the city of Perth, belong the removal of the coronation stone from Scone to Westminster by Edward I.; the battle of Dupplin, where Edward Baliol defeated the earl of Mar; the rout of the troops of General Mackay at Killiecrankie by the Highlanders under Dundee, 17th July 1689; and the indecisive battle at Sheriffmuir, 13th November 1715, between the adherents of the Pretender under the earl of Mar and the forces of the Government under Argyll. Apart from the camp at Ardoch Roman remains are not important. Of hill-forts the most remarkable is that on Dunsinane Hill. Among other relics of an early period are a ship-barrow of the vikings on the Hill of Rattray; weems in the parishes of Monzie, Alyth, and Bendochy; the witchstone near Cairn beddie, where Macbeth is said to have met the witches,—probably a sepulchral memorial of some old battlefield; another stone in Meigle parish called Macbeth’s Stone; a group of standing stones near Pitlochrie; and a number of sculptured stones at Meigle.

Abernethy, originally founded by the Pictish king Nertan in the 5th century, and refounded by St Columba in the 6th, succeeded Iona as the seat of the primacy of Scotland, afterwards transferred to St Andrews. The round tower in the churchyard, resembling those in Ireland, is supposed to have been built in the time of Kenneth Macalpine. The Culdees had monastic churches at Dunblane, Dunkeld, Abernethy, and Muthill. Dunblane (g , .v.) and Dunkeld {q.v.) were subsequently erected into bishoprics. The Canons Regular had an abbey at Scone, founded in 1124 and burned in 1559, its site being now occupied by a modern mansion; a priory at Loch Tay, 1114; a priory at Inchafray, 1200; a priory at Strathfillan, 1314; and a priory at Abernethy, 1273. The Dominicans had a convent at Perth, 1231, where there was also a Carthusian monastery, 1429, and a Greyfriars monastery, 1460. Culross abbey, of which the tower and the Gothic choir still remain, was founded by the Cistercians in 1217, and there was also an abbey of Cistercian nuns at St Leonards, Perth, founded in 1296. A Carmelite convent was founded at Tulliallan in 1267. There were collegiate churches at Meth ven and Tullibardine. Of the old castles of the chiefs mention may be made of Elcho Castle on the Tay, 4 miles south of Perth; Blair Castle, garrisoned by Montrose in 1644, stormed by Cromwell in 1653, occupied by Claverhouse in 1689, dismantled in 1690, and restored in 1870; Castle Huntly, built in 1452 by Lord Grey, master of the household to James II.; the ruins of Castle Dhu, near Moulin, once a stronghold of the Campbell family; the ruins of Finlarig Castle, Killin, the cradle of the Breadalbane family; Cluny Castle, on the island in the loch of the same name between Dunkeld and Blairgowrie; and Donne Castle, on the Teith, a picturesque ruin of very old date, rebuilt by Murdoch, duke of Albany. Among modern mansions the principal are Keir House, the seat of the late Sir W. Stirling-Maxwell; Blair Drummond House, the seat of the Drummonds; Blair Castle, duke of Athole; Taymouth Castle, earl of Breadalbane; Donne Lodge, earl of Moray; Dupplin Castle, earl of Kinnoul; Scone Palace, earl of Mansfield; Gleneagles, earl of Camperdown; Strathallan Castle, Viscount Strathallan; and Drummond Castle, Baroness Willoughby d’Eresby.

PERTH, an ancient city, a royal and parliamentary burgh, and the chief town of the above county, is beautifully situated at the foot of Kinnoul Hill, chiefly on the west bank of the Tay, about 40 miles north of Edinburgh and about 20 west of Dundee. It is substantially built of stone, and contains a number of good public buildings, while the lower slopes of Kinnoul Hill are studded with villas embosomed in woods. To the north and south of the town along the banks of the Tay are the extensive meadows of the North and South Inches. The Tay is crossed by a stone bridge for carriage traffic, erected in 1771 and widened in 1869, and by a stone and iron railway bridge with a footway. Notwithstanding its importance in early times, the city now retains almost no relics of antiquity. The religious houses were razed by the mob after John Knox preached his famous sermon in St John’s church against the idolatries of Rome. The Dominican or Blackfriars monastery, founded by Alexander II. in 1231 and a residence of the Scottish kings, occupied a site near the west end of the present bridge; the site of the Carthusian monastery, founded by James I. in 1429, and where he and his queen, and Margaret queen of JamesIV.,were buried, has since 1750 been occupied by the hospital founded by James VI.; Grey friars monastery, founded in 1460, stood on the present Greyfriars churchyard; and a little west of the town was a house of the Carmelites or Whitefriars, founded in 1260. The parliament house, where the ancient parliaments of Scotland were held, was cleared away in 1818, and was succeeded by the Freemasons’ Hall; Earl Gowrie’s palace, founded in 1520, was removed in 1805 to make way for the county buildings; the Spey tower near the Spey gate, a mural fortress long used as a prison, was taken down about fifty years ago. The cross, erected in 1668 in place of that demolished by Cromwell, was removed in 1807. The old church of St John is said to have been founded in the 5th century; the transept and nave of the existing structure date from the early part of the 13th century and the choir in its present state from the 15th; the building is now divided into an east, a middle, and a west church. Among other public edifices the principal are the county buildings (erected 1819-20 at a cost of £32,000, and enlarged in 1866), the general prison for Scotland (originally erected in 1812 as a depot for French prisoners, remodelled as a convict prison in 1840, and enlarged in 1858 and 1881), the city and county jail (1819), the military barracks (1793-94), the public seminaries (1807), Marshall Museum and Library (1823), Murray’s Royal Lunatic Asylum (1827), the infirmary (1836), the general railway station (1848), the new public hall (1881), the Boys’ and Girls’ Religious Society hall (1881), the new municipal buildings (1881), —a fine range in the Tudor style, cost £13,000.

Some of the most extensive bleach-fields in the kingdom are in the immediate neighbourhood of Perth on the banks of the Tay and the Almond. Perth itself has manufactories of gauge glasses, muslins, ginghams, imitation India shawls and scarfs, union goods, and boots and shoes; and there are rope-works, coach-building yards, iron-foundries, breweries, and distilleries. The Tay has valuable salmon fisheries. The navigation of the river is considerably obstructed by sand. In 1834 an Act was obtained for constructing a harbour and docks and enlarging the quays, which were further extended in 1856. In 1840 Perth was made an independent port; vessels of 200 tons can unload at its quays. The number of vessels in cargo and in ballast that entered the port in 1883 was 124 of 9767 tons, that cleared 124 of 9731 tons. The principal imports are Baltic timber, coal, salt, and manure, and the exports corn, potatoes, timber, and slates. The population of the parliamentary burgh in 1851 was 23,835; this had increased by 1861 to 25,250, and by 1881 to 28,949, of whom 13,453 were males and 15,496 females.

History.— Perth is stated to have been anciently called Bertha, and to have been situated at the junction of the Almond and Tay, whence it was removed to its present site after an inundation in 1210. In any case the church of St John was founded long before this; and a variety of Roman remains seem to indicate that there was a Roman station, on the present site of the city. The obscurity of its early history is accounted for by the fact that its records were removed by Edward I. Perth is stated to have been a burgh as early as 1106. The charter granted it by James VI. makes mention also of another granted by David I., and the charter of King David was renewed by William the Lion, by whom Perth was created a royal burgh. It was fortified by the last-named king in 1210 and again by Edward I. in 1298. It was attacked without success by Robert Bruce in 1306, but in 1311 he succeeded in scaling its walls one dark night. It was captured by Edward III. in 1335 and retaken by the Scots in 1339. The earl of Cornwall is stated by Fordun to have been stabbed in 1336 by his brother Edward III. before the great altar in the parish church of St John. In 1396 a famous combat took place on the North Inch, between Clan Chattan and Clan Kay, which has been made familiar to English readers by Sir W. Scott in his Fair Maid of Perth. The Blackfriars monastery, where the kings then resided, was the scene in 1437 of the murder of James I. by Walter, earl of Athole, and Gowrie House in 1600 of a mysterious conspiracy against James VI. Perth succeeded Scone as the capital of Scotland, but after the murder of James I. the parliament and courts were transferred to Edinburgh, which was declared the capital in 1482. The city was visited by the plague in 1512, 1585-87, 1608, and 1645, by the cholera in 1832, and by inundations in 1210, 1621, 1740, 1773, and 1814. It was taken by Montrose in 1644, capitulated to Cromwell in 1651, and was occupied by Dundee in 1689; it was recovered by Argyll from the adherents of the Pretender in 1715, and was occupied by Prince Charles Edward in 1745. The famous articles of Perth were agreed to at a meeting of the General Assembly in the parish church of St John, 25th August 1618.

Scott, Statistical Account of the Town and Parish of Perth, 1796; Maidment, The Chronicle of Perth from 1210 to 1668,1831; Penney, Traditions of Perth, 1836; Lawson, The Book of Perth, 1847; Peacock, Perth, its Annals and Archives, 1849.

PERTH, a city of Australia, capital of the colony of Western Australia, is picturesquely situated on the Swan river, 31° 57' 10" S. lat., 115° 52' 20" E. long., 12 miles above Freemantle and 1700 west-north-west of Melbourne. The streets are wide and regular, and the houses are built chiefly of brick and stone. It is the seat of an Anglican and of a Roman Catholic bishop. In addition to the cathedrals the principal buildings are the town-hall, built entirely by convict labour, the mechanics’ institute, the governor’s palace, and the high school. Perth was founded in 1829, received a municipal constitution in 1856, and was created a city in 1880. In the same year railway communication was opened up by means of the Eastern Railway. The population of the city, including the military, in 1871 was 5007, and in 1881 it was 5044.

Boundaries.— The republic is bounded on the W. by the Pacific Ocean, on the E. by Brazil and Bolivia, on the N. by Ecuador, and on the S. by Chili. The northern boundary commences at the village of Santa Rosa, near the southern shore of the Gulf of Guayaquil, whence it passes southwards to the river Macara, a tributary of the Chira, which falls into the Pacific. It takes the course of the Macara, up the ravine of Espindula, to its source in the cordillera of Ayavaca; in the Amazonian basin it follows the river Cauches to its junction with the Chinchipe, and the Chinchipe to the Marañon. The Maraπon then forms the boundary until the first Brazilian town is reached at Tabatinga. The frontier with Brazil was determined by article ii. of the treaty of San Ildefonso in 1777. A treaty dated 23d October 1851 further settled the boundary, which was fixed by the commissioners who explored the Yavari in 1866 and 1871. It first follows the course of the Yavari from the point where it falls into the Amazon, in 4° 13' 21" S., up to a point near its source in 7° Γ 17" S.; from this it forms a straight line to a point in 6° 52' 15" S. on the left bank of the Madeira, being half the distance between the mouth of the Mamoré and that of the Madeira. This is the point where the frontiers of Peru, Brazil, and Bolivia meet. The Peru-Bolivian frontier, within the basin of the Amazon, has not been accurately defined. It follows the Madeira to the mouth of the Mamoré, then the Beni and its tributary the Madidi to the junction of the latter with a stream called the Pablo-bamba, ascending the ravine of the Pablo-bamba to the source of that stream in the eastern Andes. The line then crosses the Andes in a straight line southwards to the village of Conima on the shore of Lake Titicaca. Thence it passes across the lake in another straight line to the isthmus of Yunguyo, and thence to the mouth of the Desaguadero. From the Desaguadero the frontier-takes a south-south-west direction to the source of the river Mauri, and then, until the recent war with Chili, it ran south along the watershed of the Maritime Cordillera to the source of the river Loa, which falls into the Pacific. The southern boundary separating the Peruvian province of Tarapaca from the Bolivian province of Atacama was formed by the ravine of Duende, south of the Loa, to the coast of the Pacific in 22° 23' S. near Tocapilla. This part of the frontier was carefully delineated in 1628, and the boundary marks are recorded in a document which is still extant. But the Chilians conquered and in 1884 annexed the Peruvian province of Tarapaca.

Physical Geography.— Peru is divided longitudinally into three well-defined regions, the coast, the sierra, and the montaña. The coast, extending from the base of the Maritime Cordillera to the Pacific Ocean, consists of a sandy desert crossed at intervals by rivers, along the banks of which there are fertile valleys. The sierra is the region of the Andes, and is about 250 miles in width. It contains stupendous chains of mountains, elevated plains and table-lands, warm and fertile valleys, and ravines. The montaña is the region of tropical forests within the valley of the Amazon, and skirts the eastern slopes of the Andes.

The coast has been upraised from the ocean at no very distant geological epoch, and is still nearly as destitute of vegetation as the African Sahara. It is, however, watered by fifty streams which cross the desert at intervals. Half of these have their origin in the summits of the Andes, and run with a permanent supply of water into the ocean. The others, rising in the outer range, which does not reach the snow-line and receives less moisture, carry a volume of water to the sea during the rainy season, but for the rest of the year are nearly dry. The absence of rain here is caused by the action of the lofty uplands of the Andes on the trade-wind. The south-east trade-wind blows obliquely across the Atlantic Ocean until it reaches Brazil. By this time it is heavily laden with vapour, which it continues to bear along across the continent, depositing it and supplying the sources of the Amazons and La Plata. Finally, the trade-wind arrives at the snow-capped Andes, and here the last particle of moisture is wrung from it that the very low temperature can extract. Coming to the summit of that range, it rushes down as a cool and dry wind on the Pacific slopes beyond. Meeting with no evaporating surface, and with no temperature colder than that to which it is subjected on the mountain-tops, this wind reaches the ocean before it becomes charged with fresh moisture. The constantly prevailing wind on the Peruvian coast is from the south. From November to April there are usually constant dryness, a clear sky, and considerable, though by no means-oppressive, heat. From June to September the sky is obscured for weeks together by fog, which is often accompanied by drizzling rain called “garua.” In 1877 the maximum temperature at Lima was 78∣° Fahr, in February and the minimum 61J 0 Fahr, in July. At the time when it is hottest and driest on the coast it is raining heavily in the Andes, and the rivers are full. When the rivers are at their lowest, the “garua” prevails on the coast. The climate of various parts of the coast is, however, modified by local circumstances.

The deserts between the river-valleys vary in extent, the largest being upwards of 70 miles across. On their western margin steep cliffs generally rise from the sea, above which is the “tablazo” or plateau, in some places slightly undulating, in others with ridges of considerable height rising out of it, the whole apparently quite bare of vegetation. The surface is generally hard, but in many places there are great accumulations of drifting sea-sand. The sand usually forms isolated hillocks, called “medanos,” of a half-moon shape, having their convex sides towards the trade-wind. They are from 10 to 20 feet high, with an acute crest, the inner side perpendicular, the outer with a steep slope. Sometimes, especially at early dawn, there is a musical noise in the desert, like the sound of distant drums, which is caused by the eddying of grains of sand in the heated atmosphere, on the crests of the “medanos.” Apparently the deserts are destitute of all vegetation; yet three kinds of herbs exist, which bury themselves deep in the earth, and survive long periods of drought. One is an amar-anthaceous plant, whose stems ramify through the sandhills; the other two are a Martynia and an Aniseia, which maintain a subterranean existence during many years, and only produce leafy stems in those rare seasons when sufficient moisture penetrates to the roots. In a few hollows which are reached by moisture the trees of the desert find support, the “algarrobo” {Prosopis horrida), a low tree of very scraggy growth, the “vichaya” {Capparis crotonoides), and “zapote del perro” {C olicodendrum scabridum), mere shrubs. Far away towards the first ascents to the Andes a tall branched cactus is met with, and there are Salicornias and Salsolas near the coast. But, when the mists set in, the low hills near the coast bordering the deserts, which are called “lomas,” undergo a change as if by magic. A blooming vegetation of wild flowers for a short time covers the barren hills. Near Lima one of the low ranges is brightened by the beautiful yellow lily called “amancaes” {Ismene Amancaes). The other flowers of the “lomas” are the “papita de San Juan” {Begonia geranifolia), with red petals contrasting with the white inner sides, valerians, the beautiful Bomarea ovata, several species of O·xalis, Solanum, and crucifers. But this carpet of flowers is very partially distributed and lasts but a short time. Generally the deserts present a desolate aspect, with no sign of a living creature or of vegetation. Only in the very loftiest regions of the air the majestic condor or the turkey buzzard may be seen floating lazily; perhaps a lizard will dart across the path; and occasionally a distant line of mules or a solitary horseman seems to shimmer weirdly in the refraction on the distant horizon.

The valleys form a marvellous contrast to the surrounding desert. A great mass of pale-green foliage is usually composed of the “algarrobo” trees, while the course of the river is marked by lines or groups of palms, by fine old willows (Salix humboldtiana), fruit-gardens, and fields of cotton, maize, sugar, and lucerne. In some valleys there are expanses of sugar-cane, in others cotton, whilst in others vineyards and olive-yards predominate. The woods of “algarrobo” are used for pasture, cattle and horses greedily enjoying the pendulous yellow pods.

For purposes of description the coast-region of Peru may be divided into six sections, commencing from the north :—(1) the Piura region; (2) the Lambayeque and Truxillo section; (3) the Santa valleys; (4) the section from Lima to Nasca; (5) the Arequipa and Tacna section; (6) Tarapaca.

(1) The great desert-region of Piura extends for nearly 200 miles from the Gulf of Guayaquil to the borders of the Morrope valley, and is traversed by three rivers—the Tumbez, Chira, and Piura, the two former receiving their waters from the inner cordillera and breaking through the outer range. It is here that the coast of South America extends farthest to the λvestward until it reaches Capes Blanco and Pariña, and then turns southward to the Bay of Payta. The climate of Piura is modified by the lower latitude, and also by the vicinity of the forests of Guayaquil. Fog and “garua” are much less frequent than in the coast-region farther south, while positive rain sometimes falls. At intervals of about ten years there are occasional heavy showers of rain from February to April. (2) The second section of the coast-region includes the valleys of the Morrope, the*Chiclayo, and Lambayeque, the Sana, the Jequetepeque, the Chieama, Moche, Viru, and Chao. With the intervening deserts this section extends over 200 miles. All these valleys, except Morrope and Chao, are watered by rivers which have their sources far in the recesses of the mountains, and which furnish an abundant supply in the season when irrigation is needed. (3) The third section, also extending for 200 miles, contains the valleys of Santa, Nepeña, Casma, Huarmey, Fortaleza, Pativilca, Supé, and Huaura. The river Santa, which rises in the lake of Conococha, 12,907 feet above the sea, and has an entire length of 180 miles, is remarkable for its long course between the outer and central ranges of the Andes, in a trough known as the “Callejon de Huaylas,” 100 miles in length. It then breaks through in a deep gorge, and reaches the sea after a course of 35 miles over the coast-belt, and after fertilizing a rich valley. The Santa and Nepeña valleys are separated by a desert 8 leagues in width, on the shores of which there is a good anchorage in the bay of Ferrol, where the port of Chimbote is to be the terminus of a projected railway. The Nepeña, Casma, Huarmey, Fortaleza, and Supé rivers rise on the slope of an outer range called the Cordillera Negra, and are consequently dry during the great part of the year. Wells are dug in their beds, and the fertility of the valleys is thus maintained. The Pativilca (or Barranca) river and the Huaura break through the outer range from their distant sources in the snowy cordillera, and have a perennial supply of water. There are 9 leagues of desert between the Nepeña and Casma, 16 between the Casma and Huarmey, and 18 between the Huarmey and Fortaleza. The latter desert, much of which is loose sand, is called the “Pampa de Mata Cavallos,” from the number of exhausted animals which die there. Between the Supé and Pativilca is the desert called the “Pampa del Medio Mundo.” (4) The next coast-section extends for over 300 miles from Chancay to Nasca, and includes the rivers of Chancay or Lacha, of Carabayllo, Rimae, Lurin, Mala, Cañete, Chincha, Pisco or Chunchanga, Yea, and Rio Grande. Here the maritime range approaches the ocean, leaving a narrower strip of coast, but the fertile valleys are closer and more numerous. Those of Carabayllo and Rimae are connected, and the view from the Bay of Callao extends over a vast expanse of fertile plain bounded by the Andes, with the white towers of Lima in a setting of verdure. Lurin and Mala are smaller valleys, but the great vale of Cañete is one green sheet of sugar-cane; and narrow strips of desert separate it from the fertile plain of Chincha, and Chincha from the famous vineyards of Pisco. The valleys of Yea, Palpa, San Xavier, and Nasca are rich and fertile, though they do not extend to the sea; but between Nasca and Acari there is a desert 60 miles in width. (5) The Arequipa and Tacna section extends over 350 miles, and comprises the valleys of Acari, Atequipa, Atico, Ocoña, Maj es or Camana, Quilca, with the interior valley of Arequipa, Tambo, Ylo or Moquegua, Ité or Locumba, Sama, Tacna, and Azapa or Arica. Here the Maritime Cordillera recedes, and the important valley of Arequipa, though on its western slope, is 7000 feet above the sea, and 90 miles from the coast. Most of the rivers here have their sources in the central range, and are well supplied with water. The coast-valleys through which they flow, especially those of Majes and Locumba, are famous for their vineyards, and in the valley of Tambo there are extensive olive plantations. (6) The most southern coast-section is that of Tarapaca, extending, between the cordillera and the Pacific, in a narrow strip from the ravine of Camarones, south of Arica, to the former southern frontier of Peru. Only two rivers reach the sea in Tarapaca, the Tiliviche in the north of the province, and the Loa in the extreme south. The other streams are lost in the desert soon after they issue from their ravines in the Andes. The reason of this is that in Tarapaca there is an arid range of hills parallel with the sea-shore, which is about 30 miles in width, and covered with sand and saline substances. Between this coast-range and the Andes is the great plateau called the “Pampa de Tamarugal,” from 3000 to 3500 feet above the sea, which is about 30 miles wide, and extends the whole length of Tarapaca. This plateau is covered with sand, and contains vast deposits of nitrate of soda. Here and there a few “tamarugas” or acacia trees are met with, which give their name to the region.

The coast of Peru has few protected anchorages, and the headlands are generally abrupt and lofty. These and the few islands are frequented by myriads of sea-birds, whence come the guano-deposits, the retention of ammonia and other fertilizing properties being due to the absence of rain. The islets off the coast are all barren and rocky.

The most northern is Foca, in 5° 13' 30" S., near the coast to the south of Payta. The islands of Lobos de Tierra and Lobos de Afuera (2), in 6° 27' 45" S. and 6° 56' 45" S. respectively, are off the desert of Sechura, and contain deposits of guano. The two Afuera islands are 60 and 36 miles from the coast at the port of San José. The islets of Macabi, in 7° 49' 20" S., also have guano-deposits, now nearly exhausted. The two islets of Guañape, surrounded by many rocks, in 8° 34' S., contain rich deposits. Chao rises 450 feet above the sea, off the coast, in 8° 46' 30" S. Corcobado is in 8° 57' S. La Viuda is off the port of Casma, in 9° 23' 30" S.; and Tortuga is 2 miles distant to the north. Santa Islet lies off the bay of Cosca, in 9° 1' 40", and the three high rocks of Ferrol in 9° 8' 30" S. Farther south there is the group of islets and rocks called Huaura, in 11° 27' S., the chief of which are El Pelado, Tambillo, Chiquitana, Bravo, Quitacaizones, and Mazorque. The Hormigas are in 11° 4' S. and 11° 58', and the Pescadores in 11° 47' S. The island of San Lorenzo, in 12° 4' S., is a lofty mass, 4⅛ miles long by 1 broad, forming the Bay of Callao; its highest point is 1050 feet. Off its south-east end lies a small but lofty islet called Fronton, and to the south-west are the Palomitas Rocks. Horadada Islet, with a hole through it, is to the south of Callao Point. Off the valley of Lurin are the Pachacaraac Islands, the most northern and largest being half a mile long. The next, called San Francisco, is like a sugar-loaf, perfectly rounded at the top. The others are mere rocks. Asia Island is farther south, 17 miles north-west of Cerro Azul, and about a mile in circuit. Pisco Bay contains San Gallan Island, high, with a bold cliff outline, 2⅜ miles long by 1 broad, the Ballista Islets, and farther north the three famous Chincha Islands, whose vast guanodeposits are now exhausted. South of the entrance to Pisco Bay is Zarate Island, and farther south the white level islet of Santa Rosa. The Infiernillo rock is quite black, about 50 feet high, in the form of a sugar-loaf, a mile west of the Point of Santa Maria, which is near the mouth of the Yea river. Alacran is a small islet off the lofty “morro” of Arica. A low island protects the anchorage of Iquique on the coast of Tarapaca, and farther south are the three islets of Patillos in 20° 46' 20" S., and the Pajaros, with guanodeposits, in 22° 6' 4" S. All these rocks and islets are barren and uninhabitable, mere outworks of the desert headlands.

The more common sea-birds, which haunt the islets and headlands in countless myriads, are the Sula variegata or guano-bird, a large gull called the Larus modestus, the Pelecanus thayus, and the Sterna Ynca, a beautiful tern with curved white feathers on each side of the head. The rarest of all the gulls is also found on the Peruvian coast, namely, the Xema furcatum. The immense flocks of birds, as they fly along the coast, appear like clouds, and one after another is incessantly seen to plunge from a height into the sea to devour the fishes, which they find in extraordinary numbers. The guano-deposits are in layers from 40 to 50 feet thick, of a greyish-brown colour outside, and more and more solid from the surface downwards, owing to the gradual deposit of strata and evaporation of fluid par-tides. Sea-lions (Otaria forst eri) are common on the rocky islands and promontories. These large creatures frequent particular islets for the purpose of breathing their last, the wounded or aged being helped there by their companions.

The Maritime Cordillera, overhanging the Peruvian coast, contains a long line of volcanic mountains, most of them inactive, but their presence is probably connected with the frequent and severe earthquakes, especially in the southern section of the coast. Since the year 1570 there have been seventy violently destructive earthquakes recorded on the west coast of South America, but the register is of course incomplete in its earlier part. The most terrible was that of 1745, which destroyed Callao. There had been subterranean noises for some days previously; the first shock was at 10.30 p.m. on 28th October, and there were 220 shocks in the following twenty-four hours. The town was overwhelmed by a vast wave, which rose 80 feet; and the shocks continued until the following February. On 13th August 1868 an earthquake nearly destroyed Arequipa,...