The history of artillery proper may be said to date from the discovery of gunpowder. This is popularly attributed to the two monks, Roger Bacon and Bartholdus Schiraz, about the end of the 13 th century (see Gunpowder); but there is ample evidence that substances of somewhat similar composition and powers had been known and used for purposes of war in the East at far earlier times. The Chinese seem to have been the first discoverers of explosive compounds as engines of war, and to have used them for several centuries before the Christian era; and their “thunder of the earth,” produced by filling a huge bombshell with some such compound, and exploding it at the proper moment, is spoken of as early as the 3d or 4th centuries of our era. According to Father Amyot, stone mortars, projecting stone balls, were used by them in the 8th century; and although they were first instructed in the scientific casting of cannon by missionaries in the 17th century, there is evidence of large cannon and wall pieces of rough construction having been in use as early as the 12th century. The inhabitants of India seem to have possessed fire-arms of some sort as early as the time of Alexander; but the information is too meagre to admit of more than the merest speculation as to their nature. The celebrated Greek fire, of which we have ample accounts, was usually in a liquid form, and vomited through long copper tubes, with which the bows of vessels of war were provided, or projected in fire-balls, or by means of arrows and javelins around which flax was twisted. It was used by the Romans of the Eastern empire with much effect, especially at the defences of Constantinople (668-675 and 716-718 a.d.), and the secret of its manufacture was preserved with a superstitious care for nearly 400 years; but it afterwards passed into the hands of the Mahometans, and was much used by them in their wars with the Christians. The Moors first introduced fire-arms in western Europe; according to Condé, they used artillery against Saragossa in 1118 A.D., and a little later they defended Niebla by means of machines which threw darts and stones through the agency of fire.

The application of gunpowder to projectile warfare, and the use of cannon, became general in Europe during the 14th century. Mention is made, however, of isolated instances of their employment at earlier periods, especially among the Moors. Artillery is also said to have been used by Henry III. of England during the rebellion of the Duke of Gloucester in 1267, and by the Spaniards against Cordova in 1280 and against Gibraltar in 1306. But it is held , by those well qualified to judge, that the first unquestionable testimony of the employment of cannon is in 1338 under Edward III. of England. The substitution of the new engine for the old mechanical artillery was gradual, and was not effected without opposition; and in the 13th and early part of the 14th centuries, we still find various machines, such as the trebuchet, onazer, scorpion, and espringal, whose action was dependent on the elasticity of twisted cords, used to hurl stones, Greek fire, <fcc.

The earliest trace of an artillery organisation, such as now plays so important a part in all great armies, is found in the middle of the 14th century. In 1344 Edward III. formed an artillery train and an ordnance establishment, numbering 340 men; but of these only twelve were termed artillerymen and gunners, the remainder consisting of waggoners, engineers, and artificers of various kinds. The ordnance establishment at the siege of Harfleur, in 1415, included twenty-five master gunners and fifty “serviteur gunners.” The gunner of those days seems to have been the captain of the gun, and to have had general charge of the guns and stores, with the especial duty of laying and firing the piece in action. The manufacturing establishments, now maintained on so gigantic a scale, do not seem to have sprung up till considerably later. Piobert states that gun-foundries were established in France in 1377; but we have no trace of them in Germany till 1440, and record of them is wanting in England until 1521.

The guns of the 14th century were of the rudest make, cumbrous and inefficient, and though an advance on the earlier machines, and useful in sieges, still played but little part in battles. Whether Edward III. used them at Creci or not (a point which has been much debated), it may safely be affirmed that they had but little to do with the result of that day. Progress, however, began to show itself in the 15 th century; the “bombards” were replaced by brass guns, and the cumbrous beds, upon which the earlier ordnance were transported, gave way to rude artillerycarriages on wheels; and iron was substituted for stone in the manufacture of projectiles. The first step towards a better organisation and some tactical system appears to have been made towards the end of the 15th century by Charles VIII. of France, who used a numerous artillery in his Italian campaigns; and Louis XII. largely owed his successes in Italy to this arm. Francis I. still further increased its mobility, adopting a lighter construction for field-guns, and having them drawn by the best description of horses; and in the defeat of the Swiss in 1515, “the French artillery played a new and distinguished part, not only by protecting the centre of the army from the charges of the Swiss phalanxes, and causing them excessive loss, but also by rapidly taking up such positions from time to time during the battle as enabled the guns to play upon the flanks of the attacking columns.” In England also considerable attention was bestowed on ordnance matters during this period, though the progress was not so great. In 1456 it is stated that a commission was issued to John Judd, as master-general of the ordnance; and in 1483 (Richard III.), Rauf Bigod was appointed master of the ordnance, an office which continued down to 1852. These early masters of the ordnance personally commanded the artillery in expeditions and wars, besides being responsible for the general administration of the personnel and matériel of such artillery as then existed. Henry VII. and Henry VIII. did much to advance the progress of artillery. Tar taglia gives tables of the different cannon in use about this time. The heavy pieces, i.e., culverins, &c., were drawn by oxen, and corresponded to those now in use for siege or position purposes, while the field guns appear to have been the 2, 4, 6 j, and 8 pounders,— falcons, falconets, and sabers. No permanent artillery trains existed at this time; the personnel was obtained by withdrawing gunners from garrisons, and supplementing them with men hired for the occasion, and the cattle required for transport were also hired. The artillery train on service included the ammunition waggons, pontoons, and a large proportion of artificers, besides the men actually required to serve the gun, corresponding nearly to the artillery park of the present day, and had its position assigned in camp and on the march. “On the march the train was preceded by an advanced guard of light cavalry to protect it. The first portion of this troop carried hatchets and saws; the second, instruments and implements for the construction of machines; the third, sledge-hammers, iron wedges, and pickaxes; finally, the last were provided with pioneers’ implements. After these came carriages loaded with guns, capstans, levers, and other like machines; these were followed by the light, pieces;.by· the heavy siege guns, by ammunition waggons, by pontoons and the necessary men for them, by the artillery artificers, and, lastly, by the baggage.”. .

The 16th century was not marked by any great advance in artillery science, though the number of guns which accompanied an army had increased considerably—as many as 1600 gunners, cannoneers, armourers, and clerks of the ordnance, being attached to Lord Mountjoy’s army in Ireland in 1599. . The artillery tactic3 were simple; the guns usually, deployed in advance of the troops.and fired a few rounds, but from their, want of mobility could neither accompany an advance nor . protect a retreat, and were generally captured on the first advance of the. enemy. Greater progress,..however, was made in the attack and defence of fortresses by artillery. Vertical fire, was used to a considerable extent, and seems to have been conducted by artificers while the. “cannoneers” served the guns. In England but little advance was made even in the 17th century, and the coinmencément. of the Great Rebellion found the artillery of England in a very _ feeble and backward state. Two books by artillerymen of those days give us ’much, information on its condition, and a very complete account of the “Field Artillery of the Great Rebellion” is furnished by Captain H. W. L. Hirne, R.A. The. guns chiefly used were the light pieces known as “minion,” “saker,” and .“demi-culverin,” i.e., 3-pounder, 5-pounder, and 9-pounder respectively. The heavier pieces being used in sieges and garrisons, and ranging from the “whole culverin,” or 15-pounder, to the “Canon Royall,” or 6 3-pounder. The carriages were cumbrous. “They were formed of two large cheeks or brackets, whose general outline was much the same as the brackets of. our own bracketdrails, connected together by four transoms.” , The transport of the ammunition was in carts or wheelbarrows, or on men’s backs. The gunners walked beside the gun, and, as in later times, their pace was a measure of the mobility of the field artillery. Cartridges, when used, were made of paper or canvas, but an iron ladle was preferred. The following words of command show the gun-drill of those days:— [table]

As to the draught, twenty-three horses were required for a cannon on good ground, fifteen or seventeen for the demi-cannon, and nine for a culverin. The proportion of guns to men was 1 per 1000. The artillery general was a greater man in those days than in more modern times, as we find that “the generali of the artillery hath alwayes a part of the charge, and when the chief generali is absent, he is to command all the army.” The “gentlemen of the artillery” seem to answer to our present majors, and the duties of the “gunners” were much the same as those now performed by lieutenants. In the Scotch invasion of 1640, leather guns were used with effect against the English in the passage of the Scots over the river Tyne. When Charles I. took the field in 1642, the earl of Peterborough, as parliamentary general of artillery, had a large train under his orders, but such was its want of mobility, that he was obliged to leave his guns behind him for a time. It came up, however, at last, and was used at the battle of Edgehill, 23d October 1642. In 1643, at Braddoch Doun, an instance occurred of the use of field artillery first masked by cavalry; and at Roundway Lord Wilmot handled his guns so well that he prepared the way for his cavalry, and finally was able to seize the enemy’s guns and turn them against him. At other affairs, however, the artillery seems to have been comparatively useless, and the presence of twenty-five guns on the Royalist side at Marston Moor was neutralised by Cromwell’s flank attack; and in no battles of this war did the artillery assume the importance it had already attained on the Continent.

The first half of this century forms an era in the history of this arm in Europe. Henry IV. of France was among the first to recognise its coming importance, and occupied himself diligently with improving it. His minister, Sully, was named master-general, and during the last ten years of his reign (1600-1610), he may be said to have created an artillery. More than 400 guns were turned out, including a number of field-pieces. Maurice of Nassau also helped to develop the use of this arm. But it was under the great Swedish warrior Gustavus Adolphus that artillery first began to take its true position on the battlefield. Recognising the necessity for the mobility of field artillery, he introduced “Kalter” guns, “consisting of a thin cylinder of beaten copper screwed into a brass breech, whose chamber was strengthened by four bands of iron, the tube itself being covered with layers of mastic, over which cords were rolled firmly round its whole length and equalised by a layer of plaster, a coating of leather, boiled and varnished, completing the piece.” This primitive field artillery was drawn and served by two men, and was first used in his Polish war. The guns could naturally bear but a small charge; the great point gained was mobility, all guns heavier than 12-pounders being separated from field artillery. In his German campaigns he used iron 4-pounder guns, weighing about 5∣ cwt., and drawn by two horses. Rapidity of fire was obtained by the use of cartridges instead of the old method of ladling the powder. Gustavus attached two of these guns to each regiment, and placed them under the orders of the colonel. Gustavus Adolphus may therefore be said to be the father of the battalion system of guns,—a system whichhad its advantages in those days of imperfect organisation, but, like many other things, was carried down to a late date when the necessity for the system had entirely disappeared. But he also appreciated the value of concentration of fire, and frequently massed his guns in strong batteries at the centre and flanks. He appears to have been fully alive to the necessity of having both a heavy and light artillery, and it was his practice to retire his heavy guns, protecting a retreat by the field artillery. It was in the celebrated Thirty Years’ War that his artillery showed the advantages which it could win when handled properly. The artillery of the Imperialists was as cumbrous as that of their Swedish adversaries was mobile. Tilly’s guns were chiefly 24-pounders, each requiring twenty transport horses and twelve horses for the waggons, while the service of the guns was primitive and defective, and they could hardly even be moved during the course of an action. The first battle of Leipsic was fought the 7th September 1631, between the allied Swedes and Saxons under Gustavus Adolphus and the Imperialists under Tilly. The Imperialist artillery was badly disposed on a range of hills in rear of their position, so that any forward movement would effectually mask the - fire of the guns. Gustavus, on the other hand, advanced his guns more, and covered his front with 100 guns, which he was able to use with considerable effect. The next action in which the use of the artillery is remarkable was the passage of the Lech, a tributary of the Danube. Tilly had taken up a position on the right bank of the river between Augsburg and Rain, and awaited attack. On the night of the 3d April 1632 the Swedish army threw up earth-works, upon which were mounted seventy-two pieces of artillery. Gustavus, taking advantage of the re-entering bend of the river, brought such a converging fire upon the Imperialists that he forced them to retire and gained the passage of the stream. At the battle of Lützen, 6th November 1632, Wallenstein had taken advantage of certain eminences and rising ground in his position to post his guns in batteries of from four to fourteen pieces, while Gustavus placed powerful batteries on the wings and centre of his line. The battle closed the glorious career of this great warrior, who was struck down in the hour of victory. During his life he had done much to forward the science of artillery. He had increased its mobility and rapidity of fire, and raised the proportion of guns to over six per 1000 men; and though he may be said to have been the originator of the battalion system, with its attendant evils of dispersion of guns, he checked this evil by keeping in hand a considerable reserve.

Further progress was made in construction and organisation during the latter part of the century. In England the Laboratory at Woolwich was established in 1672, and a great reorganisation of the artillery took place in 1682 under the master-general, Lord Dartmouth. About that time we read, that at the Hounslow camp “brass 3-pounders, under gentlemen of the ordnance, were escorted to their places by the grenadiers of the various regiments,” an example of the tactical system of “battalion guns” already spoken of. The train of artillery with which James II. prepared to meet the invasion of 1688 was a considerable one; details of it will be found at page 53 of Duncan’s History of the Royal Artillery. William III. (1689) introduced foreign artillery, and undertook the reorganisation of the personnel. He formed the first regimental establishment. Howitzers, mortars, and hand-grenades were introduced during this period, being used principally by the Dutch and English. In France the improvements under Louis XIV. seem to have been made chiefly in siege artillery. Heavy guns of position were much used, and there appears to have been a disposition to regard batteries of this kind, covered by epaulements, as in field fortifications, as the natural rôle of artillery. Louis XIV., however, was the first to give a permanent foundation to the new arm. In 1671 he raised a regiment of royal fusiliers as artillerymen, composed of gunners and workmen. Schools of instruction •were established, and the arm recognised as a special branch. Improvements were also effected in the matériel. The calibres were reduced in number and made uniform, and those then adopted have remained unaltered up to the present day, some having been rifled. Carriages were improved. “Siege and field carriages had heavy brackettrails, but were provided with limbers having a straight pintail on the top, like an old service siege limber.” 1 Platform waggons were used to transport guns; wrought-iron field carriages and mortar carriages were used; and the carriage for coast batteries was little dissimilar to the standing gun-carriage of the present day.

The 18th century was fruitful in artillery progress. In England it saw the Royal Regiment of Artillery permanently established, and rapid strides made on the Continent in every branch of the arm. The Duke of Marlborough was appointed master-general of the ordnance on the accession of Queen Anne, in 1702, and in the same year war was declared with Germany and the States-G eneral. We have but scanty record of the handling of his artillery by this great general; but at Blenheim it is said a strong battery, posted on the allied right wing, greatly assisted by its enfilade fire; and at Malplaquet, Marlborough deployed forty guns in the centre of his position. The artillery trains were considerably increased. In 1706 forty-six guns and sixty mortars formed the artillery of a force of 11,000 men, the mortars being used mounted upon travelling carriages. The history of the “Royal Regiment of Artillery” commences from the 26th May 1716, when the artillery which had so long existed was formed into two permanent companies of Royal Artillery. In 1727 the organisation was expanded into four complete companies, commanded by a colonel, lieut.-colonel, and a major, and in 1740 two more companies were added. A company consisted of 5 officers, 4 fire-workers, 18 non-commissioned officers and bombardiers, 30 gunners and cadet gunners, 48 matrosses and cadet matrosses, and 2 drummers. Albert Borgard was the first colonel. By birth a Dane, he served first in the Danish army and afterwards in the Prussian service, and subsequently entered that of England. He was adjutant of the short-lived regiment formed by William III., and died in 1751 at the age of 92. In 1741 the Royal Military Academy was instituted at Woolwich for the instruction of cadets, and of officers and men of the artillery. The cadets were accommodated in buildings at the Warren, and it was not till 1806 that the new academy was...