In the Orkney group there are fifty-six islands and islets, of which twenty-nine are inhabited, the others, which are called “holms,” being frequently made use of for pasture. Besides Pomona or the Mainland, which has an area equal to all the others combined, the principal islands are, to the north, Rousay, Westray, Papa-Westray, North Ronaldshay, Sanday, Eday, Stronsay, and Shapinshay, and to the south, Hoy, North Walls, South Walls, Flotta, South Ronaldshay, and Burray. The members of the Shetland group are more numerous than the Orkneys, consisting of about a hundred islands and islets; besides the Mainland, the more important are Yell, Unst, and Fetlar to the north, Whalsay and Bressay to the east, and East and West Burra, Papa-Stour, Muckle Roe, and Foula to the west. Except towards the west the surface of the Orkneys is comparatively flat, and in some cases, as in Sanday, the coast is so low as to be a frequent cause of shipwreck. The island of Hoy consists principally of lofty black barren rocks, of which the Ward Hill attains a height of 1564 feet. In the southern part of the Mainland, to the west of Kirkwall, the hills also reach a considerable elevation, the highest summits being Wideford Hill near Kirkwall (740 feet) and the Ward Hill of Orphir (880 feet); and there is another hilly region in the northwest of the Mainland, opposite the island of Rousay. The centre of Rousay is occupied by hills of considerable height. On the west of Hoy perpendicular precipices of great height descend sheer to the Atlantic. The outline of the islands is very irregular, and through the numerous firths and sounds the tides rush with great rapidity, forming occasionally whirlpools called roosts, which in stormy weather frequently suck in fishing-boats and prove dangerous even to large vessels.

The coast-scenery of the Shetland group is strikingly picturesque. The islands present an irregular rocky surface generally rising into hills of considerable elevation, the highest summit being Roeness Hill (1475 feet) in the Mainland. By the action of the waves the rocks have been worn into numerous fantastic shapes, and the coast-line is also deeply indented by bays and “voes” or sea-lochs, caused partly by denudation and partly by glacial action. The greater part of the coast is stern and precipitous, but Sumburgh Head, the Noup of Noss, Fitful Head, the island of Papa-Stour with its surrounding rocks, Foula (especially on its western side), the Drongs and adjoining rocks of the parish of Northmavine with the coast-line from Roeness Voe to Haevdadal Head, and Unst the most northern of the group may be singled out for their picturesque beauty or impressive grandeur. The action of the sea has formed numerous caves, the more remarkable of which are the immense Orkneyman’s Cave near the Bard of Bressay, and the fantastic caves of Papa-Stour.

Geology.— The geological formation of the Orkneys is very similar to that of the adjoining mainland, and consists almost entirely of the lower Old Red Sandstone of the flagstone series. A red and yellow sandstone series occupies part of Sanday, Eday, Burray, Flotta, and South Ronaldshay, and a long narrow strip of the Mainland to the south of Kirkwall. The mountainous district of Hoy belongs to the upper Old Red Sandstone, in which are interbedded volcanic rocks consisting of amygdaloidal lavas and ashes, and forming the terraces of the northern slopes of the Hoy hills. These rocks rest unconformably on the lower Old Red Sandstone. North-west from Stromness Bay to Inga Ness there is an outcrop of crystalline rocks consisting of granite and micaceous gneiss. The flagstone series, especially in the neighbourhood of Stromness, contains numerous fossils,—ichthyolites, crustaceans, and plants being all represented. From the character of the striated surfaces of the rocks, and the presence of foreign rocks in the boulder-clay, it has been concluded that the Orkneys were subjected to a glacial action crossing from the North Sea to the Atlantic; and there are also traces of local glaciers, especially at Hoy.

The geological formation of the Shetlands, like that of the Orkneys, belongs principally to the lower Old Red Sandstone and the metamorphic rocks on which they rest unconformably; but the proportion between the two species of rocks is reversed, the metamorphic rocks cropping to the surface throughout the greater part of the Shetland group. The central portion of the islands, including the northwestern half of the Mainland and its eastern seaboard in the parish of Northmavine, Whalsay, Yell, and the western seaboard of Unst, is occupied chiefly by micaceous and hornblendic gneiss with limestones and quartzites. In the southern portion of the Mainland the clay-slate series, with associated limestones and quartzites, prevails. In Unst and Fetlar there are large masses of serpentine and gabbro, and diorite occupies a large area in the districts of Delting and Northmavine. The lower Old Red Sandstone occupies the islands of Foula and Bressay, skirts the eastern seaboard of the Mainland from Lerwick southwards, and includes the greater part of Walls. It is associated with a series of igneous rocks, especially in the western district of Northmavine, and there is also an intrusive series. Even more striking evidence of glacial action exists in Shetland than in Orkney. The metamorphic rocks are very rich in beautiful minerals, especially along the coast of Northmavine, among the varieties being felsite, epidote, actinolite, serpentine, anthophyllite, fluor-spar, steatite, magnetite, and cyanite. Both in Orkney and Shetland there are large deposits of peat.

Climate and Agriculture.— The temperature, both of tlκ* Orkneys and of the Shetlands, presents smaller variations than that of Scotland or England. The yearly average is a little over 45° Fahr., the average for the coldest months—

January, February, and March—being nearly 39°, and for the warmest months—July, August, and September—about 53°. Though fogs are common, the rainfall is not excessive, but it is higher in Shetland than in Orkney. As the temperature is influenced by the Gulf Stream, the coldest month of the year is March, when the tide reaches its lowest point. The soil of Orkney varies in different islands, but generally it is either a sandy loam or a strong but friable clay, and remarkably fertile. Large quantities of seaweed, as well as lime and marl, are available for manure. Since the opening up of more constant communication with the south, and the construction of a complete system of roads, begun in 1857, the system of cultivation has undergone a complete transformation. Many of the holdings in Orkney are now occupied by farmers from Scotland.

Between 1875 and 1880 the number of holdings in Orkney increased from 3147 to 3319, and their area from 93,618 acres to 104,958. In 1880 2873 holdings, or more than two-thirds of the total number, did not exceed 50 acres each, while 279 ranged from 50 to 100 acres. 131 from 100 to 300, and 36 were above 300. The total number of acres under cultivation in 1883 was 112,148, of which 38,459 were under corn crops, 32,051 rotation grasses, 22,755 permanent pasture, and 1031 fallow. Of the corn crops, 32 781 acres were under oats and 5641 under barley or here, while 14,387 of the green crops were under turnips and 3104 under potatoes Horses, which are for the most part a small and active breed, numbered 6092 in 1883, of which 4884 were used solely for agricultural purposes. Cattle numbered 25,624, of which 9405 were cows and heifers in milk or in calf. Shorthorned and polled Angus are now the most common breeds, cattle-feeding being largely practised. Sheep, which in 1883 numbered 31,548, are now chiefly Cheviots and a cross between them and Leicesters, but the native sheep (identical with those of Shetland) are still kept in considerable numbers in Hoy and South Ronaldshay. Pigs numbered 4745.

In Shetland there has been no agricultural progress corresponding to that in operation in Orkney, the principal reason being insufficiency of soil, which in many cases has to be made or increased by collecting turf. Between 1875 and 1880 the number of holdings decreased from 3839 to 3604, but the area under cultivation increased from 52,256 to 58,357 acres. In 1880 3529 holdings did not exceed 50 acres each, while 36 ranged from 50 to 100 acres, 30 from 100 to 300, and 11 were above 300. Although there are some good arable farms in a few favoured districts, the majority are small crofts held on a yearly tenancy by the fishermen along with their cottages. For the most part the cottages are only slightly improved specimens of the original cabin, the fireplace of at least the “but” end being in the centre of the apartment, which was formerly shared with calves, pigs, and other young animals. The cows are now for the most part housed in separate buildings. Originally the rent was paid in kind, and it was a general custom for the landlord or tacksman to compel the crofter to barter a considerable portion of the fruits of his industry for provisions and clothing, and the practice is not yet quite obsolete in certain districts. The cottages are generally grouped together in small hamlets called “touns.” The size of a croft varies from 5 to 10 acres; but the old Norwegian measurement by merks is still retained. Originally the land was held on the “runrig” system—that is, different owners held alternate ridges—but now in most cases each holding is separate, The implement anciently used for turning over the soil was the Norwegian plough drawn by four oxen abreast, but as the holdings became subdivided and distinctly separated from each other it was superseded by the small sharp spade now in almost universal use Until lately implements with wheels were scarcely known, and even yet the crofters generally carry out even the manure for the land in straw baskets slung over the shoulders. A system of roads λvas constructed during the potato famine of 1846-49, and wheeled vehicles are in general use in the neighbourhood of Lerwick and various other places. According to the agricultural returns of 1883 there were 58,393 acres under cultivation, of which 10,528 were under corn crops, 4511 green crops, and 41,628 permanent pasture. No system of rotation is practised. Of the corn crops 8050 acres were under oats and 2478 under here; and of the green crops 3357 acres were under potatoes and 943 under turnips. Originally the grain supplies were obtained almost wholly from the Orkneys, and for a long period grey and black oats and bere or bigg were the only species grown, but now white oats are quite common. Frequently the grain does not ripen till the end of October or beginning of November. The culture of the cabbage is said to have been introduced by a detachment of Cromwell’s soldiers, potatoes in 1730, and turnips in 1807. Black and red currants ripen in sheltered situations. Horses in 1883 numbered 5305, of which only 908 were used solely for agricultural purposes; cattle numbered 21,345, of which 8132 were cows and heifers in milk or in calf; sheep numbered 81,163, and pigs 3788. The small ponies peculiar to the islands are now becoming scarce, though entire ponies are greatly in demand for working underground in collieries. The native cattle are a diminutive breed with small horns and short legs. They are said to possess many of the points of the best breeds. The beef is remarkable for tenderness and flavour; and, when well fed, the cows yield a large supply of rich milk. In some districts crosses have been introduced The native sheep of Shetland possess many of the characteristics of goats. The ewes, as well as the rams, have generally short horns, and the wool is long and of very fine quality. White, black, speckled grey, and a peculiar russet brown called “moorat” are the prevailing colours It is the common custom to tear out the wool from the roots by the hand, as this is said to ensure a finer second crop. A few black-faced and Cheviot sheep are kept in some places. The Shetland pigs, which are very inferior, are often fed on fish. Large numbers of geese and poultry are kept.

According to the Valuation Roll, 1883-84, Orkney was divided among 1149 proprietors, possessing 220,873 acres, with an annual value of about £82,416, or 7s 5d per acre. According to the Parliamentary Return of 1873 546 of the proprietors, or about 42 per cent at that date, possessed less than 1 acre, and the following 10 possessed upwards of 5000 acres each :—J, G, Μ. Heddle, 50,410; earl of Zetland, 29,846; D. Balfour, 29,054; R. Baikie, 7846; H. C. Hebden, 7500; F. T. Burroughs, 6693; A. S. Graeme, 6444; trustees of late J. Stuart of Bragh, 6243; T. Traill, 5780; trustees of the late G. Traill, 5031. Shetland in 1883-84 was divided among 575 proprietors, possessing 352,876 acres, with a total value of £44,108, or nearly 2s 6d per acre. In 1873 240 of the proprietors, or about 45 per cent., possessed less than 1 acre, 15 possessed upwards of 5000 acres, 13 above 10,000, and the following 5 above 20,000 acres each :—trustees of Busta estate, 29,820; curators of W. A. Bruce, 25,180; Lady Nicolson, 24,785; T. Μ. Cameron, 24,363; A. G. Grierson, 22,006.

Fauna. — The faunas of the two groups of islands are very similar. Remains of deer have been found in the Orkneys, although few, if any, remained in the time of the Norse jarls. For some centuries hares were extinct, but they were reintroduced about 1830. Rabbits are very numerous in some districts. The otter and walrus are met with. Seals may occasionally be observed basking on the rocks, especially in the neighbourhood of the Ve Skerries off the western coast of the Mainland (Shetlands); and whales, both large and small, are frequently captured in the bays and sounds. The common porpoise is abundant, and the grampus also haunts the coasts. Nearly all the Falconidae found anywhere else in Britain at one time frequented the Orkneys, and the hen-harrier, the merlin, the peregrine, and the sparrow-hawk are still numerous. The short-eared θλvl is common, and various other species occasionally haunt the islands. The raven, the Royston crow, the rook, and the jackdaw are all met with. The red grouse, the golden plover, the dotterel plover, and the grey plover are abundant in some districts. The snipe, the woodcock, the common heron, the curlew, the little bittern, the white stork, the white spoonbill, the knot, the ruff, and the common coot frequent the more remote regions. There is an immense variety of water-fowl. Most of the singing birds found in Scotland are either natives or occasional visitants. The great skua gull still breeds in the island of Foula, where its eggs are carefully preserved.

Flora.— Although the Orkneys contain some plants which are rare in the British Isles, the flora of the group is much smaller in variety than that of the more mountainous Shetlands. For lists the reader is referred to the paper on the flora of the Orkneys by W. Irvine Fortescue, and that on the flora of Shetland by Dr Peter White, both contained in Tudor’s Orkneys and Shetland, 1883.

Manufactures.— According to Barry the woollen manufacture was at one time of some importance in the Orkneys, but by the end of last century had been superseded by that of linen, introduced about 1747. For the manufacture flax was at one time largely grown. After the introduction of machinery in the south it was no longer possible to continue the manufacture with profit, and, although straw-plaiting for a time took its place, it also succumbed to southern competition. Next to the linen trade the most important industry in the 18th century was the-manufacture of kelp, introduced in 1722. With the abolition of the duty on Spanish barilla the manufacture for a time suffered severely, but of late years it has revived and now yields about £1500 annually. It is, however, chiefly on agriculture that the Orkneys depend, and their rapid progress in this respect has been greatly facilitated by the very ample steam communication by three different routes with Scotland. Since 1871 telegraphic communication has extended to Unst, the most northerly of the Shetland group. Straw-plaiting was at one time practised in Shetland, but kelp-making is no longer practised. The staple manufacture is knitted goods. According to Edmonston, stockings to the value of about £17,000 were annually exported from Shetland about the beginning of the present century. The manufacture of gloves was introduced about 1800, of shawls about 1340, and of veils about 1850. Fair Island has long been famous for its coloured hosiery, into the art of knitting which the inhabitants are said to have been initiated by the wrecked mariners of one of the ships of the Spanish Armada. The various dyes employed are extracted from the plants and lichens of the island.

Fisheries.— For some centuries the neighbourhood of the Orkneys and Shetlands was frequented by the fleet of Dutch vessels connected with the great herring fishery, but Barry states that fishing in his time was almost wholly neglected by the inhabitants of the Orkneys. The principal herring-stations are at Papa-Stronsay, Deersound, Holm, and South Ronaldshay. The greater part of the catch of spring herrings is despatched direct to Hamburg. The cod and ling fishing is prosecuted chiefly by the inhabitants of the north isles, both in open boats and in smacks, at the Faroes and near Iceland. Fishing is almost the sole occupation of the Shetland men, the women doing nearly all the farm-work and occupying also every spare moment in knitting both in the house and when carrying their burdens. The Shetland herring fishery has lately (1884) made rapid strides, but the increase in the take of herrings is partly due to boats from the south. As the herring fishery has increased, the deep-sea ling and cod fishing, formerly the mainstay of the islands, has proportionately diminished. The whole of the fisheries were originally in the hands of the Dutchmen, but in 1712 their supremacy was destroyed by the imposition of the duty on salt. Until within recent years the boats chiefly used were the old “sixerns” built in the islands after the model of the Norwegian yawl, but whole or half-decked boats are now rapidly taking their place. The total number of persons now employed in the fisheries of the Orkneys and Shetlands together is about 11,000, Shetland employing over 7430. The number of smacks belonging to the Orkneys is about 30, employing over 300 men; Shetland possesses about double this number, and the Shetland smacks are much more successful than those of Orkney, as more of them frequent the distant fishinggrounds. Shetland possesses, in addition to these, 285 decked first-class and 15 second-class fishing boats.

Administration and Population.— The islands of Orkney and of Shetland form one sheriffdom or stewartry, but the sheriff has a substitute in Orkney and another in Shetland. The county of Orkney and Shetland returns one member to parliament, and Kirkwall is included in the Wick district of burghs, which returns one member. Orkney includes 18 parishes and Shetland 12. From 24,445 in 1801 the population of Orkney had in 1831 increased to 28,847, and in 1861 to 32,395, but in 1881 was only 32,044, of whom 14,982 were males and 17,062 females. The population of Shetland in 1801 was 22,379, which had increased in 1831 to 29,392, and in 1861 to 31,670, but by 1881 had diminished to 29,705, of whom 12,656 were males and 17,049 females. In Orkney there were 113’88 females to every 100 males, but in Shetland the proportion is 134’71, by far the largest in any county of Scotland. The number of inhabited islands in Orkney was 29, the Mainland numbering 17,165 persons, while 5 other islands had a population of over 1000 each, viz., South Ronaldshay 2557, Westray 2200, Sanday 2082, Hoy 1380, and Stronsay 1274. Shetland comprised 30 inhabited islands, of which the Mainland contained 20,821, Yell 2529,...