HAM, a small town of France, in a marshy district on the left bank of the Somme, about 40 miles south-east of Amiens, on the railway between Amiens and Rheims. It had in 1876 a population of only 3122; but historically it is a place of very considerable importance. From the 9th century onwards it appears as the seat of a lordship which, after the extinction of its hereditary line, passed in succession to the houses of Coucy, Enghien, Luxembourg, Rohan, Vendôme, and Navarre, and was finally united to the French crown on the accession of Henry IV. In 1108 an abbey of canons regular of the congregation of France was founded at Ham; and it continued to exist till the great Revolution, the revenue of its abbot about that time amounting to 15,000 livres. The abbey church (Notre Dame) dates from the 12th century, but in April 1760 all the inflammable portions of the buildiug were destroyed by a conflagration caused by lightning, and during the present century a process of restoration has been carried out under the direction of M. Corroyer. Of special note are the bas reliefs of the nave and choir, executed in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the crypt of the 11th century, which contains the sepulchral effigies of Odo of Ham and his wife Isabella of Béthencourt. The castle, founded by Odo in the 12th century, was rebuilt in the 13th and extended in the 14th, and its present appearance is mainly due to Louis of Luxembourg, count of St Pol, who between 1436 and 1470 not only furnished it with outworks, but gave such a thickness to the towers and curtains, and more especially to the great tower or donjon which still bears his motto Mon Myeux, that they would offer a long resistance even to modern artillery (Viollet-le-Duc). It forms a rectangle 395 feet long by 263 feet broad, with a round tower at each angle and two square towers protecting the curtains. The eastern and western sides are each defended by a demi lune. The Constable’s Tower, for so the great tower is usually called in memory of St Pol, has a height of about 100 feet, and the thickness of the walls is 36 feet; the interior is occupied by three large hexagonal chambers in as many stories. As the castle of Ham has frequently been used as a state prison both in ancient and modern times, the list of those who have tasted its hospitality is an interesting one, including Joan of Arc, Louis of Bourbon, the ministers of Charles X., Louis Napoleon, Cavaignac, and Lamoricière. Louis Napoleon was there for six years, and at last effected his escape in the disguise of a workman. During 1870-71 Ham was several times captured and recaptured by the belligerents.

A view and plan of the town will be found in Caspar Merian’s Tοpοgrαphiα Gallice, Frankfort, 1656; and the former is copied in the Gentleman's Magazine, 1831. See also De Feuillide, Le Château de Ham, 1842; and Ch. Gomart, Ham, son château, 1864.

In the year 854 b.c. (according to the late George Smith) Hamath was taken by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, who defeated an army of 1400 chariots and 10,000 footmen under Irhulena, king of the district. Again in 743 b.c. Tiglath Pileser II. reduced the city to tribute, and in 740 b.c. he defeated the Hamathites, who were assisted by Azariah, king of Judah. Another rebellion was crushed by Sargon in 720 b.c. After the Macedonian conquest of Syria Hamath was called Epiphania by the Greeks in honour of Antiochus IV., Epiphanes, and in the early Byzautiue period it was known by both its Hebrew and its Greek name. In 639 a.d. the town surrendered to Abu , Obeideh, one of Omar’s generals, and the church was turned into a mosque. In 1108 A.D. Tancred captured the city and massacred the Ism’aileh defenders. In 1115 it was retaken by the Moslems, and in 1178 was occupied by Saladin. Abulfeda, prince of Hamah in the early part of the 14th century, is well known as an authority on Arab geography.

Hamann’s works resemble his life and character. They are entirely unsystematic so far as matter is concerned, chaotic and disjointed in style. To a reader not acquainted with the peculiar nature of the man, which led him to regard what commended itself to him as therefore objectively true, they must be moreover entirely unintelligible and, from their peculiar pietistic tone and scriptural jargon, probably offensive. A place in the history of philosophy can be yielded to Hamann only because he expresses in uncouth, barbarous fashion an idea to which other writers have given more effective shape. The fundamental thought is with him the unsatisfactoriness of abstraction or onesidedness. The Aufklärung, with its rational theology, was to him the type of abstraction. Even Epicureanism, which might appear concrete, was by him rightly designated abstract. Quite naturally, then, Hamann is led to object strongly to much of the Kantian philosophy. The separation of sense and understanding is for him unjustifiable, and only paralleled by the extraordinary blunder of severing matter and form. Concreteness, therefore, is the one demand which Hamann expresses, and as representing his own thought he used to refer to Giordano Bruno’s conception of the identity of contraries. The demand, however, remains but a demand. Nothing that Hamann has given can be regarded as in the slightest degree a response to it. His hatred of system, incapacity for abstract thinking, and intense personality rendered it impossible for him to do more than utter the disjointed, oracular, obscure dicta which gained for him among his friends the name of “Magus of the North.” Two results only appear throughout his writings,—first, the accentuation of belief, and, secondly, the transference of many philosophical difficulties to language. Belief is, according to Hamann, the groundwork of knowledge, and he accepts in all sincerity Hume’s analysis of experience as being most helpful in constructing a theological view. In language, which he appears to regard as somehow acquired, he finds a solution for the problems of reason which Kant had discussed in the Critique. On the application of these thoughts to the Christian theology one need not enter.

None of Hamann’s writings are of great bulk; most are mere pamphlets of some thirty or forty pages. A complete collection has been published by Roth {Schriften, 8vo, 1821-42), and by Gildemeister {Leben und Schriften, 6 vols., 1851-73). See also Petri, Hamann's Schriften u. Ar⅛∕c, 4 vols. ,1872-3; Poel, Hamann, der Magus im Norden, sein Leben u. Mittheilungen aus seinen Schriften, 2 vols., 1874-76. A very comprehensive essay on Hamann is to be found in Hegel’s Vermischte Schriften, ii. (Werke, bd. xvii. ).

H AM AS AH (more correctly Hamâseh), the name of a famous Arabian anthology compiled by Habib ibn Aus et-Tâî, surnamed Abû Temmâm (corruptly Abu-Teman, q.vj). The collection is so-called from the title Df its first book, containing poems descriptive of constancy and valour in battle, patient endurance of calamity, steadfastness in seeking vengeance, manfulness under reproach and temptation, all which qualities make up the attribute called by the Arabs hamaseh (briefly paraphrased by Et-Tebrizi as esh-shiddeh fi-l-arnr'). It consists of ten books or parts, containing in all 881 poems or fragments of poems, and named respectively—(1) El-Hamâseh, 261 pieces; (2) El-Marathi, “Dirges,” 169 pieces; (3) El-Adab, “ Manners,” 54 pieces; (4) En-Nesib, “The Beauty and Love of Women,” 139 pieces; (5) El-Hija, “Satires,” 80 pieces; (6) El-Adyaf U'ad-Medîh, “Hospitality and Panegyric,” 143 pieces;

(7) Es-Sifat, “Miscellaneous Descriptions,” 3 pieces;

(8) Es-Seyr wa-n-Ndas, “Journeying and Drowsiness,” 9 pieces; (9) El-Mulah, “Pleasantries,” 38 pieces; and (10) Medhemmet-en-nisa, “Dispraise of Women,” 18 pieces. Of these books the first is by far the longest, both in the number and extent of its poems, and the first two together make up more than half the bulk of the work. The poems are for the most part fragments selected from longer compositions, though a considerable number are probably entire. They are taken from the works of Arab poets of all periods down to that of Abû Temmâm himself (the latest ascertainable date being 832 a.d.), but chiefly of the poets of the Ante-Islamic time (<7αΛ⅛7⅛yyi2re), those of the early days of El-Islâm {Mulchadrimûn), and those who flourished during the reigns of the Umawι caliphs, 660-749 a.d. {Lslamiyyum). Perhaps the oldest in the collection are those relating to the war of Basûs, a famous legendary strife which arose out of the murder of Kuleyb, chief of the combined clans of Bekr and Teghlib, and lasted for forty years, ending with the peace of Dhu-1-Mejâz, about 534 a.d. Of the period of the 'Abbâsî caliphs, under whom Abû Temmâm himself lived, there are probably not more than sixteen fragments.

Most of the poems belong to the class of extempore or occasional utterances, as distinguished from qasîdehs, or elaborately finished odes. While the latter abound with comparisons and long descriptions, in which the skill of the poet is exhibited with much art and ingenuity, the poem3 of the Hamaseh are short, direct, and for the most part free from comparisons: the transitions are easy, the metaphors simple, and the purpose of the poem clearly indicated. It is due probably to the fact that this style of composition was chiefly sought by Abû Temmâm in compiling his collection that he has chosen hardly anything from the works of the most famous poets of antiquity. Not a single piece from Imra’el-Qeys occurs in the Hamaseh, nor are there any from 'Alqameh, Zuheyr, or El-A'shà; En-Nâbighah is represented only by two pieces (pp. 408 and 742 of Freytag’s edition) of four aud three verses respectively, , Antarah by two pieces of four verses each {Id., pp. 206, 209), Tarafeh by one piece of five verses {Id., p. 632), Lebid by one piece of three verses {Id·, p. 468), and 'Amr son of Kulthûm by one piece of four verses {I<L, p. 236). The compilation is thus essentially an anthology of minor poets, and exhibits (so far at least as the more ancient poems are concerned) the general average of poetic utterance at a time when to speak in verse was the daily habit of every warrior of the desert.

To this description, however, there is an important exception in the book entitled En-Nesîb, containing verses relating to women and love. In the classical age of Arab poetry it was the established rule that all qasîdehs, or finished odes, must begin with the mention of women and their chirms {teshbιb), in order, as the old critics said, that the hearts of the heιrers might be softened and inclined to regard kindly the theme which the poet proposed to unfold. The fragments included in this part of the work are therefore generally taken from the opening verses of qasîdehs ; where this is not the case, they are chiefly compositions of the early Islamic period, when the school of exclusively erotic poetry (of which the greatest representative was 'Omar son of Abû Rabî'ah) arose.

The compiler was himself a distinguished poet in the style of his day, and wandered through many provinces of the Muslim empire earning money and fame by his skill in panegyric. About 220 a.h. he betook himself to Khurâsân, then ruled by 'Abd-allâh son of Tâhir, whom he praised and by whom he was rewarded; on his journey home to El-'Irâq he passed through Hamadân, and was there detained for many months a guest of Abu-1-Wafâ son of Selemeh, the road onward being blocked by heavy falls of snow. During his residence at Hamadân Abû Temmâm is said to have compiled or composed, from the materials which he found in Abu-1-Wafâ’s library, five poetical works, of which one was the Hamäseh. This collection remained as a precious heirloom in the family of Abu-1- Wafâ until their fortunes decayed, when it fell into the hands of a man of Dinawar named Abu-l-'Awâdhil, who carried it to Isfahân and made it known to the learned of that city.

The worth of the Hamaseh as a store-house of ancient legend, of faithful detail regarding the usages of the pagan time and early simplicity of the Arab race, can hardly be exaggerated. The high level of excellence which is found in its selections, both as to form and matter, is remarkable, and caused it to be said that Abû Temmâm displayed higher qualities as a poet in his choice of extracts from the ancients than in his own compositions. What strikes us chiefly in the class of poetry of which the Hamäseh is a specimen, is its exceeding truth and reality, its freedom from artificiality and hearsay, the evident firsthand experience which the singers possessed of all of which they sang. For historical purposes the value of the collection is not small; but most of all there shines forth from it a complete portraiture of the hardy and manful nature, the strenuous life of passion and battle, the lofty contempt of cowardice, niggardliness, and servility, which marked the valiant stock who bore El-Islâm abroad in a flood of new life over the out-worn civilizations of Persia, Egypt, and Byzantium. It has the true stamp of the heroic time, of its -weaknesses and crime as of its strength and beauty.

No less than twenty commentaries on it are enumerated by Haji Khalifeh. Of these the earliest was by Abû Riyâsli (otherwise Er-Riyâshî), who died in 257 A.H.; excerpts from it, chiefly in elucidation of the circumstances in which the poems were composed, are frequently given by Et-Tebrizi. He was followed by the famous grammarian Abu-l-Fath ibn el-Jinni (died 392 a.h.), and later by Shihâb ed-Din Ahmed el-Marzûqî of Isfahân (died 421 a.h.). Upon El-Marzûqî’s commentary is chiefly founded that of Abû Zekerîyâ Yahyà. et-Tebrizi (born 421 a.h., died 502), which has been published by the late Professor G. W. Freytag of Bonn, together with a Latin translation aud notes (1828-1851). This monumental work, the labour of a life, is a treasure of information regarding the classical age of Arab literature which has not perhaps its equal for extent, accuracy, and minuteness of detail, in Europe. No other complete edition of the ΗαmAsch has been printed in the West; but in 1856 one appeared at Calcutta under the names of Maulavî Ghulâm Rabbani and Kabiru-d-din Ahmad. Though no acknowledgment of the fact is contained in this edition, it is a simple reprint of Professor Freytag’s text (without Et-Tebrizi’s commentary), and follows its original even in the misprints (corrected by Freytag at the end of the second volume, which being in Latin the Calcutta editors do not seem to have consulted). It is thus worthless as a fresh critical authority, and, owing to the absence of a commentary, of little use to the student; its only merit is that it contains in an appendix of 12 pages a collection of verses (and some entire fragments) not found in Et-Tebrizi’s recension, but stated to exist in some copies consulted by the editors; these are, however, very carelessly edited and printed, and in many places .unintelligible.

The Hamäseh has been rendered with the utmost skill and spirit into German verse by the illustrious Friedrich Rückert (Stuttgart, 1846), who has not only given translations of almost all the poems proper to the work, but has added numerous fragments drawn from other sources, especially those occurring in the Scholia of Et-Tebrizi, as well as the Λfdallaqahs of Zuheyr and ’ Antarah, the Lâmiyyeh of Esh-Shenferà, and the Baηet So'act of Ka'b son of Zuheyr. No such faithful interpretation of the ways and thoughts of the ancient Arabs exists to our knowledge in any modern European language; it is comparable, for fidelity, spirit, and fluency, only to Lane’s translation of the Thousand and One Nights.

When the Hamäseh is spoken of, that of Abû Temmâm, as the first and most famous of the name, is meant; but several collections of a similar kind, also called Hamäseh, exist. The best known and earliest of these is the Hamäseh of El-Bohturi (died 284 a.h.), of which some fragments were published by Theo. Noldeke in his Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Poesie der alten Araber (Hanover, 1864). Four other works of the same name, formed on the model of Abû Temmâm’s compilation, are mentioned by Hâjî Khalifeh. Besides these, a work entitled Hamäset er-Räh (the Hamäseh of wine), was composed by Abu-1-’Alâel-Ma'arrî (died 449 a.h.).

As a state of the empire Hamburg is represented in the federal council by one plenipotentiary and in the diet by three deputies. According to the present constitution, which has been in force since September 28, 1860, the legislative power is in the hands of the senate and the general body of citizens, and the executive is committed to the senate alone. Of the 18 members of the senate no less than 9 must have studied law and finance, and of the remaining 9, 7 must be representatives of commerce. The members are chosen by the senate and the burgesses after a complicated process, and the burgess upon whom their choice falls is obliged to accept office for at least six years, on pain of losing his civic rights. The senate by itself has the election of the first and the second burgomaster, each of whom holds office for only a year. There are 196 burgesses, of whom 88 are chosen by ballot by the general community, 48 by and from the owners of ground within the town, and 60 by the courts and administrative bodies. They are elected for a period of six years, but as half of each class go out at the end of every three years the elections occur twice as often. Both the senate and the burgesses have the right of introducing new bills. The basis of the civil law is the Jus Hamburgicum, revised in 1603 and supplemented by the Roman law; but in some of the rural districts local customs prevail, and in Bergedorf the Lübeck rights are still partly in force. Hamburg has appeal to the common high court of the Free Cities in Lübeck. There is a special court for commercial disputes. Juries are summoned in the more important trials; and since 1869 there has been public and responsible prosecution of criminal cases. The ecclesiastical arrangements of Hamburg have undergone great modifications since the general constitution of 1860. From the Reformation to the French occupation in the beginning of this century, Hamburg was a purely Lutheran state; according to the “Recess” of 1529, re-enacted in 1603, non-Lutherans were subject to legal punishment and expulsion from the country. Exceptions were gradually made in favour of foreign residents; but it was not till 1785 that regular inhabitants were allowed to exercise the religious rites of other denominations, and it was not till after the war of freedom that they were allowed to have buildings in the style of churches. In 1860 full religious liberty was guaranteed, and the identification of church and state abolished. By the new constitution of the Lutheran Church, published at first in 1870 for the city only, but in 1876 extended to the rest of the Hamburg territory, the parishes or communes are divided into three church-districts, and the general affairs of the whole community are entrusted to a synod of 53 members and to an ecclesiastical council of 9 members which acts as an executive. A central fund for the church was formed in 1870 out of the surplus property of the convent of St John; and in some of the communes there is a church rate. According to the returns of 1871 there were 300,968 Lutherans, 5585 members of other Evangelical Churches, 7771 Roman Catholics, 194 Mennonites, 2696 Christians of other sects, and 13,796 Jews, while 628. described themselves as without religion oι heathens, and 7071 gave no information as to creed. Since 1871 the ratio of Lutherans to non-Lutherans must have somewhat diminished. The German Reformed Church, the French Reformed, the English Episcopal, the English “Reformed,” the Roman Catholic, and the Baptist are all recognized by the state. Civil marriages have been permissible in Hamburg since 1866, and since the introduction of the imperial law in January 1876 the number of such marriages has greatly increased.

The finances of the state of Hamburg are in a generally satisfactory state; for, although the public debt has been increasing, this is due mainly to such undertakings as railways, harbour improvements, and schools. In 1876 the revenue was estimated at £1,206,161 sterling, in 1877 at £1,264,585, in 1878 at £1,330,550, and in 1879 at £1,384,630; and the corresponding expenses were stated at £1,288,503, £1,358,915, £1,422,175, and £1,507,860. The public debt, which was £6,385,042 in the end of 1874, was reduced by 1878 to £5,325,853. Of the former sum £1,457,775 was the remains of the great conflagration loan of 1842, which originally amounted to £2,550,000.

In 1868 the old civic militia, which then consisted of 7354 men, was dissolved; all citizens and inhabitants between the ages of 20 and 45 had been obliged to serve except certain state officials, and school teachers, &c. By convention with Prussia, Hamburg furnishes two battalions to the 2d Hanseatic infantry regiment.

See Statistik des Hamburgischen Staats, 1878; J. Nessmann, Statist. Handbuch für den Hamb. Staat, 1874 and 1876; Gustav Ritter, Zehn Jahre Civil standsamt im Hamburg, 1876.

HAMBURG, one of the most remarkable cities of Germany and indeed of Europe, ranking as it does as the first of all the seats of commerce on the Continent, is situated on the right bank of the northern arm of the Elbe, about 93 miles from the mouth of that river, just where it is joined by the Alster and the Bille. The latitude of the observatory in the western part of the city is 53° 33' 55'' N. and the longitude 9° 58' 23 ’ 6'' E., the latitude of the tower of St Michael’s 53° 32' 55∙7" N. and the longitude 9° 58' 41∙7" E. Were it not for political and municipal boundaries Hamburg might be considered as forming one town with Altona and Ottensen, the three presenting to the river a continuous frontage of nearly 4 miles; and long lines of suburbs radiate inland in various directions. The city proper lies on both sides of the Alster, which having been dammed up a short distance from its mouth now forms a considerable lake, of which the southern portion within the line of the fortifications bears the name of the Inner Alster (Binnen Alster), and the other and larger portion (2300 metres long and 1200 metres wide at the widest) that of the Outer Alster {Aussen Alster). The fortifications as such were removed in 1815, but they have left their trace in a fine girdle of green round the city, though too many inroads on its completeness have been made by railways and roadways. The oldest portion of the city is that which lies to the east of the Alster; but, though it still retains the name of Altstadt, nearly all trace of its antiquity has disappeared, as it was rebuilt after the great fire of 1842. To the west lies the new town, incorporated in 1678; beyond this and contiguous to Altona is the quondam suburb of St Paul’s, incorporated in 1876, and towards the north-east is the quondam suburb of St George, which arose in the 13th century, but was not incorporated till 1868. The old town lies low, and it is traversed by a great number of narrow canals or “fleets” (for the same word which has left its trace in London nomenclature is used in the Low-German city), which add considerably to the picturesqueness of the meaner quarters, and serve as convenient channels for the transport of goods. They generally form what may be called the back streets, and they are bordered by warehouses, cellars, and the lower class of dwelling-houses. As they are subject to the ebb and flow of the Elbe, at certain times they run quite dry, and afford a field of operations for the fleeteηkieker, who wanders along the oozy channel to pick up any articles of value, and at other times they are filled 15 to 20 feet above their ordinary level. As soon as the telegram at Cuxhaven announces high tide three shots are fired from the Stintfang at the harbour to warn the inhabitants of the “fleets”; and if the progress of the tide up the river gives indication of danger, other three shots add emphasis to the warning. Then the dwellers on the lower levels make a rapid escape with their property. At the time of the equinoxes the inundation may be repeated for several days in succession; but when all is over the people (the Lüd von de Waterkant) return like rats to their oozy and dripping abodes. In fine contrast to the dull and dismal fleets is the bright and handsome appearance of the Inner Alster, which is enclosed on three sides by handsome rows of buildings, the Alsterdamm in the south-east, the Old Jungfernstieg in the south-west, and the New Jungfernstieg on the northwest, while it is separated from the Outer Alster by part of the rampart gardens traversed by the railway which unites Hamburg with Altona. These streets and especially the Old Jungfernstieg are fashionable promenades. The largest of the public squares of Hamburg is the Hopfenmarkt, which contains the church of St Nicholas, and is "the principal market for fish, meat, vegetables, and fruit; others of importance are the Gänsemarkt or Goose Market, the Zeughausmarkt, and the Great New Market. The churchyards, of which several are pleasantly laid out, are all to be removed to Ohlsdorf, about 4 miles from the town.

Of the churches actually existing in Hamburg (the old cathedral had to be taken down in 1805), St Peter’s, St Nicholas, St Catharine’s, St James’s, and St Michael's are those that give name to the five old city parishes. The church of St Nicholas is remarkable more especially for its tower, which until the spire of the Cologne cathedral reaches its projected elevation of 511 feet, will probably continue to be the second highest building in the world, rising as it does to a height of 473 feet, about 19 feet lower than St Ouen’s at Rouen. The actual church dates from 1845-1874, the former St Nicholas having perished in the great fire. It was opened for public worship in 1863. The architect, the late Sir G. Gilbert Scott, selected the rich Gothic style of the 13th century; and both the exterior and interior are elaborately adorned with sculptures. Sandstone from Osterwald near Hildesheim was used for the outside, and for the inner work a softer variety from Postelwitz near Dresden. The roof is wholly constructed of wood. A large part of the cost, which altogether amounted to £204,220, was defrayed by weekly shilling subscriptions. St Michael’s has a tower which almost rivals that of St Nicholas, as with its height of 428 feet it ranks ninth in the list of loftiest buildings in the world. It was erected by Ernst G. Sonnin between 1750 and 1762, on the site of the older building of the 17th century destroyed by lightning; and it not only surpasses all the other churches of Hamburg in size, being 229 feet long and 179 feet broad, but produces a fine effect by the colossal proportions of its four principal pillars. St Peter’s church, originally consecrated in 1352, fell a prey to the great conflagration, but it was rebuilt by Chateauneuf in 1844-1849. The ring on the door of the tower (which dates from 1342) is considered the oldest artistic relic in Hamburg; and the granite columns of the old cathedral, the stained glass windows by Kellner of Nuremberg, and Schubert’s Entombment of Christ are worthy of notice. St Catharine’s and St James’s are the only churches of Hamburg that have been preserved from the Middle Ages, but otherwise neither is of special interest. Of the other churches it is sufficient to mention St George’s, built in 1743, St Paul’s in the suburb of that name, the lesser St Michael’s occupied by the Roman Catholics since 1824, and the English Episcopal church dating from 1838. The new synagogue was built by Rosengarten between 1857 and 1859, and to the same architect is due the sepulchral chapel of John Henry Schröder in the churchyard of St Peter’s. The beautiful Gertrude’s chapel was unfortunately destroyed in 1842.

Though Hamburg has comparatively few secular buildings that are of high architectural interest, its list of public institutions is one of which any city might be proud, and several of these are accommodated in spacious structures not unworthy of their destination. The exchange is one of the most important. It was erected on the site of the Mary Magdalen convent in 1836-41, and escaped the catastrophe of 1842. At the business hours between 1 and 3 o’clock as many as from 3000 to 5000 merchants and brokers congregate within its walls. The commercial library in the new wing added in 1873 has upwards of 40,000 vols. In the same neighbourhood are the Hamburg bank and the site of the old rathhaus, which had to be blown up in the great fire. The town-house, built by Görtz, minister of finance to Charles XII. of Sweden, was purchased by the town in 1722. The academic gymnasium, founded on 16th August 1610 as a preparatory school for the universities, has since 1873 surrendered its teaching functions, though it still maintains public lectures to which all have access, and is in more or less close connexion with the botanic gardens, the natural history museum, the observatory, the chemical laborStory, and the museum of Culturgesehichte. The present botanical gardens, which hal been preceded by Veit Scharp’s (1547-1782) and Flugge’s (1810-1813), were laid out by Dr Lehmann on the glacis of the fortifications, and contain about 11 acres. The natural history museum was founded in 1843, and in 1875 the sum of 1,200,000 marks from the Hamburg share of the French indemnity was assigned for the purpose of supplying better accommodation for its valuable collections, amongst which may be mentioned that from Heligoland and that of Griesbach from South Africa. The observatory, dating from about 1826-1828, is a noteworthy institution. It possesses a great equatorial telescope made by Repsold & Sons in I860, the object glass of which has an aperture of 9 '6 Paris inches, with a focal distance of only 9 '6 feet; and among its contributions to science are Helmert’s observations on the constellation of Sobieski’s Shield (1874), and the determination of all the stars down to 9'5 magnitude in the zone between 80° and 81° of N. declination. In connexion with the observatory a time-ball on the tower of the Kaiserquai is caused to fall at 12 o’clock of Greenwich time: there is a similar ball at Cuxhaven, and another at Bremerhaven. The chemical laboratory was built in 1841. It was not till 1866 that the ethnographical collections were put under special curators; and the name Culturgeschichtliche Museum only dates from 1872. The principal medical institution in the city is the college of surgeons, founded in 1771 as a general school for doctors and midwives; it received its present constitution in 1833, and was furnished with new buildings in 1861. It was not till 1867, however, that the guild of barbers, with its right of surgical practice, was abolished. The medical union established by H. de Chaufepié about 1815-1816 has published several periodical works, and possesses a library of 12,000 vois. A mathematical society was founded by Heinrich Meissner as early as 1690, the Hamburg-Altona Society for natural science dates from 1837, the Hamburg-Altona branch of the German Anthropological Society from 1870, and the Hamburg branch of the German and Austrian Alpine Club from 1875. A geographical society, which publishes ajournai, wa3 founded in 1873; and the firm of Godeffroy, which trades so extensively in the Pacific, has instituted a museum, and sent out scientific explorers and collectors,—Dr E. G raffe, Amalie Dietrich, Johann Kubary, Andrew Garrett, Franz Hübner, &c.,— the results of whose labours are registered in the Journal des Museum Godeffroy (1871, &c ). Zoological gardens were founded in 1860 1 by a joint-stock company, and an aquarium has since been added under the superintendence of Alfred Lloyd of the Sydenham Crystal Palace. Two of the old monasteries of the town—the St Johanniskloster and the St Maria Magdalenenkloster are still maintained as foundations for the daughters and widows of Hamburg citizens, and the former has funds beyond its requirements. The general infirmary (allgemeine Krankenhaus) dates originally from 1606, but the present building was erected in 1825-27, and has since received several additions. The annual number of patients increased, between 1825 and 1875 from 2398 to 8206. The subvention from the state rose in the same period from £8400 to £23,182, and the average daily cost of each patient from 9d. to Is. 9d. A lunatic asylum (Friedrichsberg) was founded in 1841 at Barmbeck at a cost of £2540 for the site and £66,086 for the building. Its patients numbered 212 in 1865 and 492 in 1875. Among minor establishments of a similar class are the sailors’ infirmary (1863), the St Mary’s hospital founded by the Roman Catholic community on the occasion of the Danish war in 1864, but open to patients of every creed, the infirmary of the German Jews built by Solomon Heine in 1840, the infirmary of the freemasons, the children’s hospital dating from 1846-7, the polyclinicum of the patriotic association for the assistance of women (1872), the deaf and dumb institution (1827), and the blind asylum (1830). The orphanage originated in 1600 by Gillis de Greve and Simon von Petkum, admits about 64 children every year. In the beginning of July the orphans, in their bright blue out-door dress, make a procession through the city and the suburb of St George, and the day, known as the Waisengriin, is considered a popular holiday. In the suburban village of Horn is the famous Rauhe Haus, and at Alsterdorf there is a home founded in 1860 for idiots and children suffering from incurable diseases. It had 273 inmates in 1875. The workhouse, which dates from the beginning of the 17th century, has been situated since 1853 in the village of Barmbeck, and since 1869 has had a branch establishment at Fuhlsbüttel. In 1875 it had 1342 inmates, and its revenues were £17,332, besides a state subvention of £20,417. The annual cost per head is £14, 15s. About 200 free dwellingsand a number of pensions are provided by the Schroder foundation for respectable families and individuals in reduced circumstances.

Hamburg is well supplied with places of amusements, especially of the more popular kind. Its town theatre, rebuilt in 1874, has room for 1750 spectators; the Thalia theatre dates from 1841, and contains 1700 to 1800; and there are some 7 or 8 minor establishments. Theatrical performances were introduced into the city in the 17th century, and 1678 is the date of the first opera, which was played in a house in the Gänsemarkt. Under Schröder and Lessing the Hamburg stage rose into importance. Though contributing few names of the highest rank to German literature, the city has been intimately associated with the literary movement. Lappenberg and Hagedorn were born in Hamburg; and not only Lessing, but Heine and Klopstock lived there for some time. In Schroder and Klotze’s Lexicon der Mamburg. Schriftsteller there are no fewer than 3536 names up to Schroff; and the library of the society for the encouragement of art and science contains 5000 volumes dealing with Hamburg affairs.

The inhabitants of Hamburg used formerly to have no small variety of distinctive costumes; but it is only the public officials in their robes of state or the peasantry from the villages that preserve the more grotesque peculiarities.

The oldest water-works of Hamburg were those of the Oberdamrn, constructed in 1531; the first of the modern system with steam power was the Bieber’sehe Elbwasserkunst, openedjn 1822. In 1849 the city water-works belonging to the state were set in operation, and they have since incorporated and systematized the older waterworks. In 1875 they had 5 steam-engines with 850 horse-power, and raised 876 millions cubic feet of water at a cost of about 8d. per 1000 cubic feet. It was not till after the fire of 1842 that Hamburg began to be properly drained; but it now possesses an extensive and elaborate system of sewers. In 1853 the upper Old Town, the New Town, and St George’s were supplied, and in 1859 the lower Old Town; and between 1871 and 1875 the system was extended to the aristocratic suburban districts of Uhlenhorst and Eimsbüttel. In 1875 the total length of sewers was 512,226 feet, which had cost £662,850. The largest sewers, of which there were 10,499 feet, have a diameter of nearly 10 feet, and can be traversed by boats; the second class (8330 feet) have a diameter of 7 feet, and the third class (19,853 feet) of 5⅜ feet. The mouths of the sewers are protected by automatic doors which prevent the flooding of the lower districts by the back-water from the river.

The harbour of Hamburg as it now exists is a very modern creation. At first the city was at some distance from the main-branch of the Elbe, and the mouth of the Alster served as its port, but partly owing to natural changes in the bed of the great river, and more to the vast engineering enterprises of the inhabitants,—such as the cutting of the channels through the Grandeswerder (1550), the Spadenland marshes (1570), and the Brook,—the principal current was diverted into its present course. To trace the history of the successive labours devoted to the rectification of the stream and the increase of shipping accommodation would be a long aud intricate task. Suffice it to say that up to the middle of the present century the vessels in the harbour of Hamburg used to anchor in the open space and fasten themselves to piles called “dukes of Alba,” and the goods were taken ashore in lighters; but since the introduction of the railway it has been found necessary to build quays with hydraulic cranes and other modern appliances. For this purpose the greater Grasbrook was first of all selected. A portion of the Sandthor (Sandgate) quay was opened in 1872, and by 1876 the Kaiser or Imperial quay and the Dallmaun quay (so named after the engineer) were available. The total length of the three quays was 10,646 feet, and the area of ground covered in by the auxiliary buildings was upwards of 30 acres. Since that date the quays have been largely increased, so that they now extend a distance of about 3 miles from Altona eastwards. The number of ships which took advantage of the quays in 1866-67 was 665, with a burthen of 313,269 tons; by 1875 they had increased to 1425 ships with 837,568 tons, and by 878 to 1850, with 1,151,903 tons.

Hamburg is emphatically a commercial city, and though within recent years greatly developed, its manufacturing industries are in comparison unimportant; but only in comparison, for, according to the official return of 1875, no fewer than 4931 persons were engaged in metallurgy, 5926 in the manufacture of machinery, instruments, and tools, 940 iu chemical works, 1399 in the preparation of heating and lighting materials, 1464 in textile industries, 2687 in the paper and leather manufactures, and 9388 in the wood industries. Shipbuilding is carried on pretty extensively, the greatest establishment in the department, the Reiherstieg or Godeflioy’s yards, which was commenced about 1849, employing on an average 700 workmen. There are several enormous distilleries, and two establishments for the manufacture of artificial manures from the phosphates of guano, each of which employs from 200 to 300 workmen; as well as breweries, sugar-refineries, rice-mills, and factories for the preparation of saltpetre, sulphuric acid, and other chemical products. The curing of beef and pork forms a large trade. Pianofortes and cigars, railway carriages and artificial flowers, sewing-machines and chocolate are all manufactured in the town, and tile-works and glassworks exist in the neighbourhood.

In the extent of its commerce Hamburg ranks among European ports immediately after London, Liverpool, and Glasgow. Its im-Sjrts and exports are more than those of the whole of Holland, of elgium, or of Spain. From the year 1836, in which it possessed 146 ships, with a total burthen of 25,722, its marine had increased 770 per cent, by 1877. In 1875 it had 443 sea-vessels with 219,567 tons burthen; in 1876 it had 450 with 219,698 toils, and in 1877 468 with 223,910. Of the last number 264 were copper-plated, 6 were zinc-plated, and 147 were built of iron. The steam vessels were 102. The principal line of steamers is that of the Hamburg-American Company, which on 1st January 1876 had 21 first-class British-built vessels, with a total burthen of 60,300 tons. Its voyages are mainly madeto New York and the West Indies. On an average of the three years 1874,1875, and 1876 it earned 31,930 passengers and 165,465 cubic yards of goods. The Hamburg and South American Company at the same time had six vessels, with a burthen of 8000 tons, trading with Brazil and the river Plate. The German Steamship Company had 8 vessels with a burthen of 6,850 tons trading with

China and the Far East; and the Kosmos Company had 7 ships with a burthen of 10,897 tons trading with Chili and Peril. TheSlomanor Mediterranean line of six vessels with a burthen of 5276 tons keeps up monthly communication with ports of Spain and Italy.

From the following table a general view of the movement of the port will be obtained. It is to be observed that the increase shown is not so much in the number of the ships as in their average capacity. [table]

The average consequently for the years 1866-1875 was—ships entered 5198, tonnage 1,735,242; ships cleared, 5202, tonnage 1,731,973.

The following table shows the imports (in centners of 110 ∏>) into Hamburg in 1878, first from non-European, and secondly from European countries :— [table]

Hamburg is an important outlet of emigration, no fewer than 870,000 persons having left Germany by its vessels between 1836 and 1874, or on an average 30,000 every year. In 1874 the number was 42,952; in 1875, 31,787; in 1876, 28,733; in 1877, 22,143; and in 1878, 24,803.

The monetary transactions of Hamburg have long been maintained on a very extensive scale. As early as 1619 the great Hamburg giro-bank was founded on the model of that of Amsterdam, and, in spite of the blow struck by the French in 1813, it continued to flourish till in 1876 it was replaced by a chief office of the German Imperial Bank, which includes in its domain the province of Schleswig-Holstein-Lauenburg, the three Hanseatic towns, and the two grand-duchies of Mecklenburg. In 1876 there were, besides, the North German Bank (1856) with a capital of £2,250,060; the Union Bank (1856), with £1,500,000 capital; the Commercial Bank (1870), with £1,500,000; the International Bank (1870), with £750,000; the Anglo-German Bank (1870), with £1,050,000; the Hypothec Bank (1871), with £375,000; the Exchauge (Wechsler) Bank (1872), with £187,500; the Brokers’ Bank (1871), with £150,000; the Industrial Bank (1871), with £150,000; the St Paul’s Credit Bank, with £150,000; and the People’s Bank (1860). The Imperial Office in 1876 had a total turnover of £336,693,950; and in 1875 the North German Bank had 438 millions, the Union Bank 270 millions, and the Commercial 170 millions. There are also 7 savings banks, the total deposits in which rose from £846,070 in 1866 to £1,615,626 in 1874. Few departments are of more extensive development than the marine insurance. In the ten years 1834-43 the average value insured was £17,534,487, at an average premium of l - 50 per cent.; in the corresponding period 1844-53 it was £24,028,991 at 1 - 58 per cent.; and in the next period, 1854-63, it reached £45,571,543.

The following table shows the figures from 1864 to 1877 :— [table]

It is only ∙within recent years that Hamburg has obtained a fair amount of railway communication. The proposal made about 1840 to construct a line from Hamburg to Lübeck was frustrated by the opposition of the king of Denmark, who feared it would injure the trade between his two towns of Altona and Kiel, which scon afterwards (in 1844) he united by rail. The people of Hamburg were forced to eontent themselves with a line to Bergedorf (1842), but this was afterwards extended to Schwerin and Berlin, and a branch line was constructed to Lübeck. The Hamburg-Lübeck direct line was opened in 1865, and in the following year a line was constructed between Altona and Hamburg. Direct communication with Paris by way of Harburg, Bremen, Osnabrück, andVenloo was obtained only in 1872. Though as early as 1862 a scheme was set on foot for such a line, the projectors could not come to terms with the Hanoverian Government, which objected to the duchy of Oldenburg obtaining a share in the advantages of the scheme, and wished to keep to itself the whole authority over the bridges on the Elbe .while leaving the cost of their construction wholly to Hamburg. In 1866 the Hanoverian Government was swept away by Prussia, and in 1867 the new rulers formed a treaty for the construction of the line. The two main branches of the Elbe, the north and the south, are crossed by two great bridges on the system named after Lohse, which had never before been employed in Germany. As the soil is unstable, the pillars had to be founded on a bed of concrete 17 or 18 feet thick resting on piles. The Hamburg or north bridge has three spans each 334 feet wide, and the Harburg bridge has four spans. The total weight of iron employed was 84,651 cwts. (36,152 for the one and 48,499 for the other). Forinternal locomotion the city has a system of tramway lines which run out to Wandsbeckand other neighbouring villages, and a still more extensive omnibus system. Small steamers plying on the Outer Alster give easy access to the places along its shores.

In 1811 the population of Hamburg {Stadt and Vorstadt) was 106,983; in 1834 it was 145,418; and by 1861 it had reached 198,214. Its subsequent increase is shown in the following table :— [table]

If we include in our survey the suburban hamlets or Vororte, and Altona, Ottensen, and Wandsbeck, wθ find that there were clustered together 458,585 persons. In 1871 the preportion of males to females in the whole Hamburg territory was 100 to 105, and in 1875 it was 100 to 103. The number of females in proportion to the males is much greater among the native than among the immigrant part of the population; and the proportion of natives to immigrants is a steadily decreasing one,—76 per cent, in 1867, 68 per cent, in 1871, and 65 in 1875. Most of the strangers are from the neighbouring parts of Germany: 43,523 in 1871 were from Holstein, 30,945 from Hanover, and 15,686 from Mecklenburg-Schwerin. The following table shows the occupations of the people in 1871 [table]

The number of marriages, partly in consequence of the changes in the marriage laws, is rapidly increasing (8‘29 to every thousand inhabitants in 1861, and 12 - 26 to every thousand in 1875), and a similar increase is observable in the births.

The death rate varied from 26 to 30 per thousand per annum from

1872 to 1875. Consumption and acute diseases of the respiratory organs are the most prevalent causes of death. Between 1831 and

1873 there were 14 visitations of cholera, by far the most violent being those of 1832 and 1848, which carried off respectively 1652 and 1765 of the population.

History.— Hamburg, or, as the older documents have it, Hamma-burg, appears to have taken its rise as a frontier block-house or castle on the Slavonic borders of Germany, which in the 9th century lay thus far to the west. The block-house, which may have been preceded by some insignificant hamlet, was founded by Charles the Great in 8Ô8; and he was just on the point of making the newly erected church the seat of a bishopric when he died in 814. His scheme was ultimately carried out by his son Louis the Pious in 831, and three years later a charter was issued at Aix-la-Chapelle and confirmed by Gregory IV. raising the bishopric to the rank of an archbishopric, which was to include not only the surrounding district of Germany, but Iceland, Greenland, and the whole Scandinavian territory. Ansgarius, the first occupant of the see, founded a monastery and a school, but in 837 (or 839 according to other accounts) his labours were πιdely interrupted by the Norman pirates, who laid the little settlement in ashes. Other disasters followed: a large portion of the original territory of the archbishopric fell away from its allegiance; and in 847 it was decided at a synod at Mainz under the presidency of Hrabanus Maurus that Hamburg should be attached to the bishopric of Bremen, and the seat of the archbishop be in the latter city. The title of archbishop of Hamburg remained in use till 1223, though that of archbishop of Bremen appears as early as the 12th century. All through the 10th century Hamburg continued to suffer from the inroads of the Danes and the Slavonians, and the latter indeed were in possession from 983 to 987. In spite of all the settlement advanced: Archbishop Alebrand built a cathedral in 1037, Archbishop Adalbert not long after a castle; and the havoc wrought by Jarl Kruko of Denmark in 1072 was promptly repaired. In 1110the counts of Schauenburg got possession of Holstein and Hamburg, an event which bore in many ways fruit for centuries after. In return for a contribution to a crusade, Adolf III. obtained for the town from the emperor Frederick I. in 1189 the right of a separate court and jurisdiction, freedom from toll to the mouth of the Elbe, and right of fishing in the river. Merchants from Flanders now began to visit the place, and its importance as a commercial centre was increased by the destruction of the flourishing town of Bardewijk in 1189 by Henry the Lion. After passing under the lordship of Waldemar of Schleswig (1201) and Albert of Orlamünde (1216), it was recovered by the Schauenburg counts, who erected a strong castle over against it (1231). The alliance with Lübeck, commenced in 1241, and consummated by the treaty of 1255, practically laid the basis of the great Hanseatic League, of which Hamburg continued to be one of the principal members. While its foreign relations were thus improved, its internal organization was also rendered more stable by the new constitution of 1270, and the recognition of the municipal autonomy of the counts of Schauenburg in 1292. The domain of the city was increased in the 14th century by the purchase of Eppendorf, Ritzebüttel, &c.; in the 15th the Frisian pirates who had harassc<l the merchants at the mouth of the Elbe were completely defeated. The claims of the Danish crown to the homage of the city were rejected, and the imperial diet of 1510 under Maximilian I. declared that it was a city of the empire. Not long after two great changes took place. By the so-called “Long Recess” of 1529 the Reformation was introduced, and disagreements with Lübeck set the city free to follow her own path of progress. Through the troubles of the Thirty Years’ War Hamburg escaped almost unscathed; but it suffered from the effects of its own bigoted Lutheranism, which drove many of its dissentient religionists forth to become the founders of the neighbouri