The ass, there is little doubt, was first domesticated in Asia,—probably prior to the domestication of the horse,— whence it passed at a comparatively late period into Europe, for in the time of Aristotle it was not found in Thrace. In England there is evidence of its presence so early as the time of the Saxon Ethelred, but it does not appear to have been common till after the time of Queen Elizabeth. The koulan, or wild ass (Asinus Onager, Gray), differs from the domestic species in its shorter and more rounded ears, and in the greater length and finer form of its limbs. Its fur shows the dark streak along the back, but the streak across the shoulders does not appear to be a constant character. It is chiefly to be met with in the plains of Mesopotamia, in Persia, in Cutch, on the shores of the Indus, and in the Panjab, congregating in herds under a leader, and migrating southwards on the approach of winter. The adults are exceedingly shy, so that it is difficult to get within rifle range of them. According to Layard, who had ample opportunity for observing them during his researches around Nineveh, “they equal the gazelle in fleetness, and to match them is a feat which only one or two of the most celebrated mares have been known to accomplish.” In the same region, over 2000 years ago, Xenophon, during the famous expedition of Cyrus, observed herds of wild asses so “fleet that the horsemen could only take them by dividing themselves into relays, and succeeding one another in the chase.” The young are sometimes caught during spring by the Arabs, who feed them with milk in their tents. They are hunted chiefly by the Arabs and Persians, by whom their flesh is esteemed a delicacy. Their food, according to Dr Shaw, consists mainly of saline or bitter and lactescent plants; they are also fond of salt or brackish water. The leather known as shagreen, from the Turkish term sagri, is made from the skin of the ass; the ingrained aspect which it bears is not, however, natural to it, but is produced by a chemical process described by Pallas. The milk of the ass, containing more sugar and less caseine than that of the cow, closely resembles woman’s milk, and has long been valued as a nutritious diet where the digestive organs are weak.

Table showing the Area, Population, and Land Revenue of the Assam, Province [table]

The area given in this table is exclusive of 8343 square miles of hill country in Lakhimpur, and 3715 square miles of the Cachar hills, but it includes the two districts of Goàlpâra and the Gâro hills, which, although for political convenience placed under the commissioner of the Kuch Behar division of Bengal, belong physically and linguistically to Assam.

History. —Assam was the province of Bengal which remained most stubbornly outside the limits of the Mughul empire and of the Muhammadan polity in India. Indeed, although frequently overrun by Musulman armies, and its western districts annexed to the Muhammadan vice-royalty of Bengal, the province maintained an uncertain independence till its invasion by the Burmese towards the end of the last century, and its final cession to the British in 1826. A full account of its ancient kings will be found in Mr William Robinson’s Assam, chap. iv. (Calcutta, 1841). It seems to have been originally included, along with the greater part of north-eastern Bengal, in the old Hindu territory of Kamπip. Its early legends point to great religious revolutions between the rival rites of Krishna and Siva as a source of dynastic changes. Its roll of kings extends deep into pre-historic times, but the first Raja capable of identification flourished about the year 76 λ.d. Kâmrûp, the Prâgjotishpur of the ancient Hindus, was the capital of a legendary king Narak, whose son Bhagadatta distinguished himself in the great war of the Mahabharata. On the rise of the Koch power, the kings of Kuch Behar wrested a portion of Assam from the kings of the Pal dynasty to whom it belonged. In the early part of the 13 th century the Ahams or Ahorns, from northern Burmah and the Chinese frontiers, poured into the eastern districts of Assam, founded a kingdom, and held it firmly for several centuries. A tradition relates that this race of conquerors were originally let down from heaven by iron chains, and alighted in a place called Mungbingram, supposed to be in the Patkai range, in 567 λ.d. Their manners, customs, religion, and language were, and for a long time continued to be, different from those of the Hindus; but they found themselves compelled to respect the superior civilisation of this race, and slowly adopted its customs and language. The conversion of their king Chuchengpha to Hinduism took place about the year 1611 a.d. and the whole Ahams of Assam gradually followed his example. In mediaeval history, the Assamese were known to the Musalman population as a warlike, predatory race, who sailed down the Brahmaputra in fleets of innumerable canoes, plundered the rich districts of the delta, and retired in safety to their forests and swamps. As the Muhammadan power consolidateα itself in Bengal, repeated expeditions were sent out against these river pirates of the north-east. The physical difficulties which an invading force had to contend with in Assam, however, prevented anything like a regular subjugation of the country; and after repeated efforts, the Musalmâns contented themselves with occupying the western districts at the mouth of the Assam valley. The following details will suffice for the history of a struggle in which no great political object was attained, and which left the Assamese still the same wild and piratical people as when their fleets of canoes first sallied forth against the Bengal delta. In 1638, during the reign of the Emperor Shah Jahan, the Assamese descended the Brahmaputra, and pillaged the country round the city of Dacca; they were expelled by the governor of Bengal, who retaliated upon the plunderers by ravaging Assam. During the civil wars between the sons of Shah Jahan, the king of Assam renewed his predatory incursions into Bengal; upon the termination of the contest, Aur-angzeb determined to avenge these repeated insults, and despatched a considerable force for the regular invasion the Assamese territory. His general, Mir Jumla, defeated the Raja, who fled to the mountains, and most of the chiefs made their submission to the conqueror. But the rains set in with unusual violence, and Mir Jumlâ’s army was almost annihilated by famine and sickness. Thus terminated the last expedition against Assam by the Muhammadans, whose fortunes in this country were never prosperous. A writer of the Muhammadan faith says :—“Whenever an invading army haβ entered their territories, the Assamese have sheltered themselves in strong posts, and have distressed the enemy by stratagems, surprises, and. alarms, and by cutting off their provisions. If these means failed, they have declined a battle in the field, but have carried the peasants into the mountains, burned the grain, and left the country desert. But when the rainy season has set in upon the advancing enemy, they have watched their opportunity to make excursions and vent their rage; the famished vaders have either become their prisoners or been put to death. In this manner powerful and numerous armies have been sunk in that whirlpool of destruction, and not a soul has escaped.” The same writer states that the country was spacious, populous, and hard to be penetrated; that it abounded in dangers; that the paths and roads were beset with difficulties; and that the obstacles to conquest were more than could be expressed. The inhabitants, he says, were enterprising, well-armed, and always prepared for battle. Moreover, they had lofty forts, numerously garrisoned and plentifully provided with warlike stores; and the approach to them was opposed by thick and dangerous jungles, and broad and boisterous rivers. The difficulties in the way of successful invasion are of course not understated, as it was the object of the writer to exalt the prowess and perseverance of the faithful. He accounts for their temporary success by recording that “the Musalman hordes experienced the comfort of fighting for their religion, and the blessings of it reverted to the sovereignty of his just and pious majesty.” The short-lived triumph of the Musalmâns might, however, have warranted a less ambitious tone. About the middle of the 17th century the chief became a convert to Hinduism. By what mode the conversion was effected does not clearly appear, but whatever were the means employed, it seems that the decline of the country commenced about the same period. Internal dissensions, invasion, and disturbances of every kind convulsed the province, and neither prince nor people enjoyed security. Late in the 18th century some interference took place on the part of the British Government, then conducted by Lord Cornwallis; but the successor of that nobleman, Sir John Shore, adopting the non-intervention policy, withdrew the British force, and abandoned the country to its fate. Its condition encouraged the Burmese, an aggressive people, to depose the Râjâ, and to make Assam a dependency of Ava. The extension of their encroachments on a portion of the territory of the East India Company compelled the British Government to take decisive steps for its own protection. Hence arose the sériée of hostilities with Ava known in Indian history as the first Burmese war, on the termination of which by treaty in February 1826, Assam remained a British possession. In 1832 that portion of the province denominated Upper Assam was formed into an independent native state, and conferred upon Purandar Sinh, the ex-Râjâ of the country; but the administration of this chief proved unsatisfactory, and in 1838 his principality was reunited with the British dominions. After a period of successful administration and internal development, under the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, it was erected into a separate Chief-Commissionership in 1874.

Physical Aspects. —Assam is a fertile series of valleys, with the great channel of the Brahmaputra (literally, the Son of Brahma) flowing down its middle, and an infinite number of tributaries and water-courses pouring into it from the mountains on either side. The Brahmaputra spreads out in a sheet of water several miles broad during the rainy season, and in its course through Assam forms a number of islands in its bed. Rising in the Thibetan plateau, far to the north of the Himâlayas, and skirting round their eastern passes, not far from the Yang-tse-kiang and the great river of Cambodia, it enters Assam by a series of waterfalls and rapids, amid vast boulders and accumulations of rocks. The gorge, situated in Lak-himpur district, through which the southernmost branch of the Brahmaputra enters, has from time immemorial been held in reverence by the Hindus. It is called the Brahma-kunda or Parasurâmkunda; and although the journey to it is both difficult and dangerous, it is annually visited by thousands of devotees. After a rapid course westwards down the whole length of the Assam valley, the Brahmaputra turns sharply to the south, spreading itself over the alluvial districts of the Bengal delta, and, after several changes of name, ends its course of 1800 miles in the Bay of Bengal. Its first tributaries in Assam, after crossing the frontier, are the Kundil and the Digaru, flowing from the Mishmi hills on the north, and the Tengâpâni and NawA Dihing, which take their rise on the Singpho hills to the south-east. Shortly afterwards it receives the Dibang, flowing from the north-east; but its principal confluent is the Dihang, which, deriving its origin, under the name of the Sanpu, from a spot in the vicinity of the source of the Satlej, flows in a direction precisely opposite to that river, and traversing the table-land of Thibet, at the back of the great Himalaya range, falls into the Brahmaputra in 27° 48'N. lat., 95° 26'E. long., after a course of nearly 1000 miles. Doubts were long entertained whether the Dihang could be justly regarded as the continuation of the Sanpu; these, however, have been gradually removed by the additional testimony of more recent notices; and as it is now ascertained that the last-named river does not flow into the Irawadi, it appears impossible to account for its course to the sea, except by presuming it to discharge its w aters into the Brahmaputra through the channel of the Dihang. Below the confluence, the united stream flows in a south-westerly direction, forming the boundary between the districts of Lakhimpur and Darang, situated on its northern bank, and those of Sadiyâ, Sibsâgar, and Naogâon on the south; and finally bisecting Kâmrüp, it crosses over the frontier of the province, and passes into Bengal. In its course it receives on the left side the Buri Dihing, a river having its rise at the south-eastern angle of the province; and lower down, on the opposite side, it parts with a considerable offset termed the Buri Lohit, which, however, reunites with the Brahmaputra 60 miles below the point of divergence, bearing with it the additional waters of the Subansiri, flowing from Thibet. A second offset, under the name of the Kalang River, rejoins the parent stream a short distance above the town of Gauhâti. The remaining rivers are too numerous to be particularised. Of these, not less than 61 are distinguished by well-known names, of which 34 flow from the northern, 24 from the southern mountains, and the remainder from sources beyond the confines of Assam. The streams of the south are not rapid, and have no considerable current until May or June. Among the islands formed by the intersection and confluence of the rivers is Mâjuli, or the Great Island, as it is called by way of pre-eminence. This island extends 55 miles in length by about 10 in breadth, and is formed by the Brahmaputra on the southeast, and the Buri Lohit river on the north-west. A Persian writer, Muhammad Kâzim, in describing Assam at the close of the 17th century, makes some observations on its general appearance. He thus speaks of Mâjuli two centuries ago :—

“An island well inhabited, and in an excellent state of agriculture; it contains a spacious, clear, and pleasant country. The cultivated part is bounded by a thick forest, which harbours elephants, and these animals may be caught here, as well as in four or five other forests in Assam. If there be occasion for them, five or six hundred elephants may be procured in a year.”

Describing the country south of the Brahmaputra, the same native author observes :—

“Across the river on the side of Garhgaon is a wide, agreeable, level country that delights the heart of the beholder. The whole face of it is marked with population and tillage; and it presents on every side charming prospects of ploughed fields, harvests, gardens, and groves. From the village of Sâlagirâ to the city of Garhgâon, a space of about 50 kos (100 miles) is filled with such an uninterrupted range of gardens, plentifully stocked with fruit trees, that it appears as one garden. Within them are the houses of peasants, and a beautiful assemblage of coloured and fragrant herbs, and of garden and wild flowers blowing together. As the country is overflowed in the rainy season, a high and broad causeway has been raised for the convenience of travellers from Salagira to Garhgâon, which is the only uncultivated ground that is to be seen. Each side of this road is planted with shady bamboos, the tops of which meet and are entwined. Among the fruits which this country produces are mangoes, plantains, jacks, oranges, citrons, limes, and punialeh, a species of amleh, which has such an excellent flavour that every person who tastes it prefers it to the plum. There are also cocoa-nut trees, pepper-vines, areca trees, and the sadij (an aromatic leaf), in great plenty. Sugar-cane excels in softness and sweetness, and is of three colours, black, red, and white; there is ginger free from fibres, and betel vines. The strength of vegetation and fertility of the soil is such that whatever seed is sown, or slips planted, they always thrive. The environs of Garhg⅛n furnish small apricots, yams, and pomegranates; but as these are wild, and not assisted by cultivation and engrafting, they are very indifferent. The principal crop of this country consists in rice and mash. Ades, a kind of pea, is very scarce, and wheat and barley are never sown.”

And in respect to the other great division of the province he remarks;—

“The country which is on the northern side of the Brahmaputra is in the highest state of cultivation, and produces plenty of pepper and areca nuts. It even surpasses the southern portion in population and tillage; but as the latter contains a greater tract of wild forests and places difficult of access, the rulers of Assam have chosen to reside in it for the convenience of control, and have erected in it the capital of the kingdom. The breadth of the northern division from the bank of the river to the foot of the mountains, which is a cold climate and contains snow, is various, but is nowhere less than 30 miles, nor more than 90. The inhabitants of those mountains are strong, have a robust and respectable appearance, and are of a middling size. Their complexions, like those of the natives of all cold climates, are red and white; and they have also trees and fruits peculiar to frigid regions.”

This description, written two centuries ago, would apply at the present day. In the upper part of the valley, towards the gorge where the Brahmaputra enters, the country is varied and picturesque, walled in on the north and east by the Himalayas, and thickly wooded from the base to the snowline. On either bank of the Brahmaputra a long narrow strip of plain rises almost imperceptibly to the foot of the hills. Gigantic reeds and grasses occupy the low lands near the banks of the great river; expanses of fertile rice-land come next; a little higher up, dotted with villages encircled by groves of bamboos and fruit trees of great size and beauty, the dark forests succeed, covering the interior table-land and mountains. The country in the vicinity of the large rivers is flat, and impenetrable from dense tangled jungle, with the exception of some very low-lying tracts which are either permanent marshes or are covered with water during the rains. Jungle will not grow on these depressions, and they are covered either with water, reeds, high grasses, or rice cultivation. On or near such open spaces are collected all the villages. As the traveller proceeds farther down the valley, the country gradually opens out into wide plains. In the western district of Kâmrùp the country forms one great expanse, with a few elevated tracts here and there, varying from 200 to 800 feet in height.

Varieties of Soils. —The soil is exceedingly rich and well adapted to all kiuds of agricultural purposes, and for the most part is composed of a rich black loam reposing on a gray sandy clay, though occasionally it exhibits a light yellow clayey texture. The land may be divided into three great classes. The first division is composed of hills, the largest group within the valley being that of the Mikir Mountains, which stand out upon the plain. Another set of hills project into the valley at Gauhâti But these latter are rather prolongations of spurs from the Khâsiâ chain than isolated groups belonging to the plains. The other hills are all isolated, and of small extent. The second division of the lands is the well-raised part of the valley whose level lies above the ordinary inundations of the Brahmaputra. The channels of some of the hill streams, however, are of so little depth that the highest lands in their neighbourhood are liable to sudden floods. On the north bank of the great river, lands of this sort run down the whole length of the valley, except where they are interrupted by the beds of the hill streams. The breadth of these plains is in some places very trifling, whilst in others they comprise a tract of many miles, according to the number and the height of the rocks or hills that protect them from the aberrations of the river. The alluvial deposits of the Brahmaputra and of its tributary streams may be considered as the third general division of lands in Assam. These lands are very extensive, and present every degree of fertility and elevation, from the vast chars of pure sand, subject to annual inundations, to the firm islands, so raised by drift-sand and the accumulated remains of rank vegetable matter, as no longer to be liable to flood. The rapidity with which wastes composed entirely of sand newly washed forward by the current during floods become converted into rich pasture, is astonishing. As the freshets begin to lessen and retire into the deeper channels, the currents form natural embankments on their edges, preventing the return of a small portion of water which is thus left stagnant on the sands, and exposed to the action of the sun’s rays. It...