At Smyrna he met with a most kind reception from the English consul, Mr Bretton, upon whose death he afterwards wrote a Latin elegy. From this place he proceeded to Constantinople, where he received similar civilities from Sir Thomas Bendish, the English ambassador, and Sir Jonathan Dawes, with whom he afterwards contracted an intimate friendship. While at Constantinople he read and studied the works of Chrysostom, once bishop of that see, whom he preferred to all the other Fathers. He resided in Turkey somewhat more than a year, after which he proceeded to Venice, and thence returned home through Germany and Holland in 1659. Immediately on his reaching England he received ordination from Bishop Brownrig, and iu 1660 he was appointed to the Greek professorship at Cambridge. When he entered upon this office he intended to have prelected upon the tragedies of Sophocles; but he altered his intention, and made choice of Aristotle’s rhetoric. His lectures on this subject having been lent to a friend who never returned them, are irrecoverably lost. In July 1662 he was elected professor of geometry in Gresham College, on the recommendation of Dr Wilkins, master of Trinity College, and afterwards bishop of Chester; and in May 1663 he was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society, at the first election made by the council after obtaining their charter. The same year the executors of Mr Lucas, who, according to the terms of his will, had founded a mathematical chair at Cambridge, fixed upon Barrow as the first professor; and although his two professorships were not inconsistent with each other, he chose to resign that of Gresham College, which he did on the 20th May 1664. In 1669 he resigned his mathematical chair to his illustrious pupil Isaac New ton, having now determined to renounce the study of mathematics for that of divinty. Upon quitting his professorship Barrow was only a fellow of Trinity College; but his uncle gave him a small sinecure in Wales, and Dr Seth Ward, bishop of Salisbury, conferred upon him a prebend in that church. In the year 1670 he was created doctor in divinity by mandate; and, upon the promotion of Dr Pearson, master of Trinity College, to the see of Chester, he was appointed to succeed him by the king’s patent, bearing date the 13th February 1 672. In 1675 Dr Barrow was chosen vice-chancellor of the university. He died on the 4th of May 1677, in the 47th year of his age, and was interred in Westminster Abbey, where a monument, surmounted by his bust, was soon after erected by the contributions of his friends. By his English contemporaries Barrow was considered a mathematician second only to Newton. Continental writers do not place him so high, and their judgment is probably the more correct one. He was undoubtedly a clear-sighted and able mathematician, who handled admirably the severe geometrical method, and who in his Method of Tangents approximated to the course of reasoning by which Newton was afterwards led to the doctrine of Ultimate Ratios; but his substantial contributions to the science are of no great importance, and his lectures upon elementary principles do not throw much light on the difficulties surrounding the border-land between mathematics and philosophy. His Sermons have long enjoyed a high reputation; they are weighty pieces of reasoning, elaborate in construction and ponderous in style.

His scientific works are very numerous. The most important are:—1. Euclid s Elements; 2. Euclid's Data; 3. Optical Lectures, read in the public school of Cambridge; 4. Thirteen Geometrical Lectures; 5. The Works cf Archimedes, the Four Books of Apollonius's Conic Sections, and Theodosius's Spherics, explained in a New Method; 6. A Lecture, in which Archimedes’s Theorems of the Sphere and Cylinder are investigated and briefly demonstrated; 7. Mathematical Lectures, read in the public schools of the University of Cambridge. The above were all written in Latin. His English works have been collected and published in four volumes folio.

BARROW, Siu John, Bart., was born near Ulverston, in Lancashire, June 19, 1764. His early opportunities of instruction were limited; but by self-education he matured those powers which eventually were turned to so good an account. He displayed at an early age a decided inclination for mathematical pursuits. He passed some years of his youth as superintending clerk of an iron foundry at Liverpool, and he afterwards taught mathematics at an academy in Greenwich. While in the latter situation he was fortunate in obtaining, through the interest of Sir George Staunton, a place in the first British embassy to China. He was thus enabled to put his foot on the first step of the ladder of ambition; but each step in his subsequent career may be fairly said to have been achieved by himself. The account of the embassy published by Sir George Staunton records many of Barrow’s valuable contributions to literature and science connected with China. This work, together with his own subsequently published volume of travels, is ample evidence how well his time had been employed. Few persons could, within the space of a few months, overcome all the practical difficulties of such a language as the Chinese; but Barrow soon began to converse in it. and acquired a complete knowledge of its theory. His papers on this subject in the Quarterly Review (to which periodical he was for many years a very frequent contributor) contain a very admirable account of that singular language.

Although Barrow ceased to be personally connected with Chinese affairs after the return of the embassy in 1794, he always continued to take a lively interest in them, and on critical occasions was frequently consulted by the British Government. His services were secured by Lord Macartney in his important and delicate mission to settle the government of the newly-acquired colony of the Cape of Good Hope. Barrow was entrusted with opening communications with the Kaffres, in which he displayed a spirit, judgment, and humanity, which unfortunately were less conspicuous in subsequent transactions with those tribes. The two volumes of his history of the colony made the public fully acquainted with the extent, capacities, and resources of that important, but till then little understood, acquisition of the British Crown. There is little doubt that it was the perusal of this valuable work which mainly decided Lord Melville to appoint Barrow, though then a perfect stranger to him, as his second secretary of the Admiralty. Barrow’s subsequent career for forty years at the Admiralty (embracing the whole period of the war with France), will be for ever historically associated with the civil administration of the British navy for the same period. He enjoyed the esteem and confidence of all the eleven chief lords who successively presided at the Admiralty Board during that period, and more especially of King William IV., while lord high admiral, who honoured him with tokens of his personal regard. Barrow was a fellow of the Royal Society, and had the degree of LL.D. The honour of a baronetcy was conferred on him by Sir Robert Peel in 1835; the letter in which the honour was announced acknowledged, in highly gratifying terms, his literary and scientific eminence, and his “Jong, most able, and most faithful public service.”

Besides the works already mentioned, Barrow published the lives of Lord Macartney, Lord Anson, Lord Howe, and Peter the Great; and he was also the author of several valuable contributions to the seventh edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.

He retired from public life in 1845, in consideration of his advanced years, although still in vigorous possession of all the mental and bodily powers required for the due discharge of the functions of his office. In the course of the three following years his vital energies gradually declined, but he nevertheless continued so fully in the enjoyment of his faculties, writing a history of the modern Arctic voyages of discovery, of which he was a great promoter, as well as his autobiography, published in 1847, that his friends and relatives entertained no apprehension that his end was so near. He expired suddenly on the 23d November 1848, in the 85th year of his age, much honoured and respected by his friends and the public at large.

The town has had a remarkable rise. The veins of pure haematite iron ore in the district, now so extensively wrought, have long been in repute; and more than a hundred years ago, a small traffic was carried on in the ore, with the addition by-and-by of pig-iron, which early began to be manufactured in the vicinity of the mines,—the branch of the channel, now converted into docks, serving as a harbour, and the beach as a quay, for the shipment of the material brought down from the mines and charcoal furnaces. But at the beginning of the present century the annual export was only about 1000 tons, and then, and for many years after, though the trade went on increasing, the place was the merest hamlet, the population so recently as 1847 being only 325. It may be said that the railway has created the modern town. By the opening in 1846 of the first short section of the Furness Company’s line, from the mines near Dalton to Piel pier and Barrow, the trade of the district received a great impetus, and it rapidly developed with the various extensions of the railway, till in 1857, by the carrying of the line over Morecambe sands, through communication was established between Barrow and Carnforth. When the railway was opened the shipments of ore had risen to 60,000 tons a year, while within five years afterwards there left by sea and rail a total of 250,000. which again, within other five years, increased to 450,000 tons. The next great onward step was the establishment at Barrow, in 1859, of the iron-works of Messrs Schneider and Hannay, followed in 1864 by the commencement of steel-works, the two being united in 1866 under “The Barrow Haematite Steel Company (Limited).” In 1867 there were opened the Devonshire and Buccleuch docks, constructed at a comparatively small cost by the enclosure of the channel between the mainland and a small island on which shipbuilding works have since been erected. The docks comprise an area of above 60 acres, are entered from Walney Channel by a gateway 60 feet wide, give a uniform depth of 24 feet, the stone quays being 1∣ miles long, and the wharves supplied with hydraulic cranes, one of which is capable of lifting 100 tons. Within a few years after the opening of the docks various important branches of industry were introduced, by means of which the town has both been consolidated and increased. The census of 1871 gives a return of 17,992, while a census for municipal purposes, November 1874, showed a population of over 40,000. The inhabited houses at the same period numbered about 6000, the rateable value of the borough being £144,000. The town owes much of its prosperity to the enterprise of the dukes of Devonshire and Buccleuch, and also to the foresight, zeal, and practical ability of Sir James Ramsden, managing director of the Furness Railway Company and first mayor of the borough, who in 1872 received the honour of knighthood as an acknowledgement of the value of his work, while a massive bronze statue in the centre of the town, raised about the same time by voluntary contributions, testifies to the appreciation of his services by the community.

A great part of the town lies low, much of it being built on ground reclaimed from the sea. It is well laid out, according to a fixed plan, in regular streets running at right angles, viz., north and south, and east and west. About £19,000 have already been expended on approaches and general road improvements. Not many public buildings can be looked for, but among others are the North Lonsdale Hospital; the Workmen’s Club and Institute, the gift of MrH. W. Schneider,and others; swimming baths, presented by Sir James Ramsden; a town-hall and large covered market, besides churches, schools, and banks.

The first place among the public works must be assigned to those of the Barrow Haematite Steel Company. Their iron-works have sixteen blast furnaces constructed so as to save the waste gases, which are utilized in heating the boilers and hot-air ovens. At the steel-works, which are the largest in Great Britain, are eighteen converters for making Bessemer steel. The amount of ore used is about 460,000 tons annually, of which the company’s own mines yield upwards of 350,000 tons. There is an annual produce of 250,000 tons .pig-iron, and 110,000 tons of steel, 80 i 000 tons of the latter being rails. In the processes about 500,000 tons of coke and coal are consumed annually; and the company employ at their works and iron-mines nearly 5000 men, besides a large number at coal-mines which they also work.

The works of the Iron Shipbuilding Company (capital, a quarter of a million), lying between the docks and Walney Channel, cover an area of 50 acres, with a frontage of 1050 feet, where ten vessels of the largest size can be laid down. When the works are in full operation, 6000 men will be employed. There is also a graving-dock of the largest size.

The Barrow Flax and Jute Company have an extensive jute work adjoining the docks, and communicating with the railway. It covers an area of 14 acres, has an imposing and attractive exterior, and is beautifully and elaborately fitted up with the greatest possible regard to efficiency and comfort. The works employ 2000 hands. Besides the above there are large engineering-works, waggon-works, sawmills, brick-works, and a steam corn-mill.

The trade of the port is indicated by the character of the public works. The imports are chiefly timber, coal, jute, and general produce. Ore, steel rails, and pig-iron are chief among the exports. In 1874 the vessels entering the port numbered 1620, with a tonnage of 347,800 tons register. An extension of dock accommodation is being provided in a series of basins, to be called the Ramsden dock, with a water area of 200 acres. Passenger steamers run daily to Belfast, and there is also a regular service to Glasgow and to the Isle of Man. By rail there is connection with Whitehaven, and with the London and North-Western and Midland systems, with branches to the Lake district.

Barrow is in the diocese of Carlisle. Besides the Church of England, which has three places of worship, there are the following churches :—the Presbyterian, Congregational, Wesleyan, Methodist New Connexion, Baptist, and Primitive Methodist.

The town received a charter of incorporation in 1867, when a council of sixteen was nominated, that number being doubled by an Act obtained in 1875. The supply of water comes from Kirkby Moor, the water-works as well as the gas-works being the property of the corporation. A cemetery has been provided at a cost of £25,000, with three chapels. A complete and thorough plan of drainage is being carried out, partly on the separate system. There is a fire brigade under the corporation, and at the entrance to the harbour there is a life-boat station. The police are those of the county. Several newspapers are published; and there are branches of various banking establishments, some of them occupying large and handsome buildings.

The extensive and interesting ruins of Furness Abbey, founded by Stephen in 1127, lie within the borough, over two miles from the heart of the town. They are beautifully situated in a small wooded valley, with a hotel and railway station close by. On Piel island is the Pile of Fouldrey, or Piel castle, the ruin of a castle built in 1327 by the abbot of Furness.

In England the long barrow usually contains a single chamber, entering by a passage underneath the higher and wider end of the mound. In Denmark the chambers are at irregular intervals along the body of the mound, and have no passages leading into them. The long barrows of Great Britain are often from 200 to 400 feet in length by GO to 80 feet wide. Their chambers are rudely but strongly built, with dome-shaped roofs, formed by overlapping the successive courses of the upper part of the side walls. In Scandinavia, on the other hand, such dome-roofed chambers are unknown, and the construction of the chambers as a rule is megalithic, five or six monoliths supporting a capstone of enormous size. Such chambers denuded of the covering mound, or over which no covering mound has been raised, are popularly known in England as “cromlechs” and iι r France as “dolmens.” The prevailing mode of sepulture in all the different varieties of these structures is by the deposit of the body in a contracted position, accompanied by weapons and implements of stone, occasionally by ornaments of gold, jet, or amber. Vessels of clay, more or less ornate in character, which occur with these early interments of unburnt bodies, are regarded as food vessels and drinking cups, differing in character and purpose from the cinerary urns of the Cremation Period in which the ashes of the dead were deposited.

The custom of burning the body commenced in the Stone Age before the long barrow or the cromlech, with their contracted burials, had passed out of use. While cremation is rare in the long barrows of the south of England, it is the rule in those of Yorkshire and the north of Scotland. In Ireland, where the long barrow form is all but unknown, the round barrow. or chambered cairn, prevailed from the earliest Pagan period till the introduction of Christianity. The Irish barrows occur in groups in certain localities, which seem to have been the royal cemeteries of the tribal confederacies, whereof eight are enumerated in an ancient Celtic manuscript on Pagan cemeteries. The best known of these was the burial-place of the kings of Tara. It is situated on the banks of the Boyne above Drogheda, and consists of a group of the largest cairns in Ireland. One of these, at New Grange, is a huge mound of stones and earth, over 300 feet in diameter at the base, and 70 feet in height. Around its base are the remains of a circle of large standing stones. The chamber, which is 20 feet high in the centre, is reached by a passage 70 feet in length. (See illustration, vol. ii. p. 384.)

As in the case of the long barrows, the traditional form of the circular chambered barrows was retained through various changes in the sepulchral customs of the people, and we find it used both in connection with burnt and with unburnt burials. It was the natural result of the practice of cremation, however, that it should induce a modification of the barrow structure. The chamber, no longer regarded as a habitation to be tenanted by the deceased, became simply a cist for the reception of the urn which held his ashes. The degradation of the chamber naturally produced a corresponding degradation of the mound which covered it, and the barrows of the Bronze Age, in which cremation was the rule, are smaller and less imposing than those of the Stone Age, but often surprisingly rich in the relics of the life and of the art workmanship of the time. In addition to the varied and beautiful forms of implements and weapons,—frequently ornamented with a high degree of artistic taste,—armlets, coronets, or diadems of solid gold, and vases of elegant form and ornamentation in gold and bronze, are not uncommon. The barrows of the Bronze Period, like some of those of the Stone Age, appear to have been used as tribal or family cemeteries. In Denmark as many as seventy deposits of burnt interments have been observed in a single mound, indicating its use as a burying-place throughout a long succession of years.

In the early Iron Age there was a partial return to the more massive construction of the earlier periods. Sometimes chambers are found formed of timber instead of stones, in which the bodies were deposited unburnt, although the custom of cremation was largely continued. In Scandinavia both of these modes of sepulture lingered till the close of the Pagan time. One of the latest examples of the great timber-chambered barrow is that at Jellinge in Jutland, known as the barrow of Thyre Danebod, queen of King Gorm the Old, who died about the middle of the 10th century. It is a mound about 200 feet in diameter, and over 50 feet in height, containing a chamber 23 feet long, 8 feet wide, and 5 feet high, formed of massive slabs of oak. Though it had been entered and plundered in the Middle Ages, a few relics, overlooked by its original violators, were found when it was recently reopened, among which were a silver cup, ornamented with the interlacing work characteristic of the time, and some personal ornaments. It is highly illustrative of the tenacity with which the ancient sepulchral usages were retained even after the introduction of Christianity that King Harald, son and successor of Gorm the Old, who is said to have Christianized all Denmark and Norway, followed the Pagan custom of erecting a chambered tumulus over the remains of his father, on the summit of which was placed a rude pillar-stone, bearing on one side the memorial inscription in Runes, and on the other a representation of the Saviour of mankind distinguished by the crossed nimbus surrounding the head. The Kings’ Hows at Upsala in Sweden rival those of Jellinge in size and height. In the chamber of one of them, which was opened in 1829, there was found an urn full of calcined bones; and along with it were some ornaments of gold showing the characteristic workmanship of the 5th and 6th centuries of the Christian era. Along with the calcined human bones were bones of animals, among which those of the horse and the dog were distinguished. In much earlier times the favourite horse or dog of the deceased was frequently deposited in Etruscan tombs, and the custom continued in Northern Europe until cremation, and the barbarous rites which usually accompanied it, were abolished by the stringent prohibitions of the Christian church.

Comparing the results of the researches in European barrows with such notices of barrow-burial as may be gleaned from early writings, we find them mutually illustrative.

The Homeric account of the building of the barrow of Hector (77. xxiv.) brings vividly before us the scene so often suggested by the examination of the tumuli of prehistoric times. During nine days wood was collected and brought, in carts drawn by oxen, to the site of the funeral pyre. Then the pyre was built and the body laid upon it. After burning for twenty-four hours the smouldering embers were extinguished with libations of wine. The white and calcined bones were then picked out of the ashes by the friends and placed in a metallic urn, which was deposited in a hollow grave, or cist, and covered over with large wellfitting stones. Finally, a barrow of great magnitude was heaped over the remains, and the funeral feast was celebrated. The obsequies of Achilles, as described in the Odyssey, were also celebrated with details which are strikingly similar to those observed in tumuli both of the Bronze and Iron Ages. The body was brought to the pile in an embroidered robe, and jars of unguents and honey were placed beside it. Sheep and oxen were slaughtered at the pile. The incinerated bones were collected from the ashes and placed in a golden urn along with those of Patroclus, Achilles’s dearest friend. Over the remains a great and shapely mound was raised on the high headland, so that it might be seen from afar by future generations of men.

Herodotus, describing the funeral customs of the Scythians, states that, on the death of a chief, the body was placed upon a couch in a chamber sunk in the earth and covered with t imber, in which were deposited all things needful for the comfort of the deceased in the other world. Ono of his wives was strangled and laid beside him, his cupbearer and other attendants, his charioteer, and his horses, were killed and placed in the tomb, which was then filled up with earth, and 'an enormous mound raised high over all. The barrows which cover the plains of ancient Scythia attest the truth of this description. A Siberian barrow, described by Demidoff, contained three contiguous chambers of unhewn stone. In the central chamber lay the skeleton of the ancient chief, with his sword, his spear, his bow, and a quiver full of arrows. The skeleton reclined upon a sheet of pure gold, extending the whole length of the body, which had been wrapped in a mantle broidered with gold and studded with precious stones. Over it was extended another sheet of pure gold. In a smaller chamber at the chief’s head lay the skeleton of a female, richly attired, extended upon a sheet of pure gold, and similarly covered with a sheet of the same metal. A golden chain adorned her neck, and her arms were encircled with bracelets of pure gold. In a third chamber, at the chief’s feet, lay the skeleton of his favourite horse with saddle, bridle, and stirrups.

So curiously alike in their general features were the sepulchral usages connected with barrow-burial over the whole of Europe, that we find the Anglo-Saxon Saga of Beowulf describing the chambered tumulus with its gigantic masonry “held fast on props with vaults of stone,” and the passage under the mound haunted by a dragon, the guardian of the treasures of heathen gold which it contained. Beowulf’s own burial is minutely described in terms which have a strong resemblance to the parallel passages in the Iliad and Odyssey. There is first the preparation of the pile, which is hung round with helmets, shields, and coats of mail. Then the corpse is brought and laid in the midst; the pile is kindled, and the roaring flame rises, mingled with weeping, till all is consumed. Then, for ten long days, the λvarriors labour at the rearing of his mighty mound on the headland, high and broad, to be seen afar by the passers by on land and sea.

The pyramids of Egypt, the mausolea of the Lydian kings, the sepulchres of the Atreidae at Mycenae, and tho Etruscan tombs at Caere and Volci, are lineally descended from the chambered barrows of prehistoric times, modified in construction according to the advancement of architectural art at the period of their erection. There is no country in Europe destitute of more or less abundant proofs of the almost universal prevalence of barrow-burial in early times. It can be traced on both sides of the basin of the Mediterranean, in Northern Africa, and in Asia Minor, across the plains of Mesopotamia, in the valley of Cabul, and throughout Western India. But more extended research in the archaeology of these vast regions is needed to enable U3 to correlate their ancient remains with those of the European continent.

In the New World as well as in the Old, the same customs prevailed over vast areas from a very remote period. In the great plains of North America the dead were buried in barrows of enormous magnitude, which occasionally present a remarkable similarity to the long barrows of Great Britain. In these mounds cremation appears more frequently than inhumation; and both are accompanied by implements, weapons, and ornaments of stone and bone. The pottery accompanying the remains is often elaborately ornamented, and the mound builders were evidently possessed of a higher development of taste and skill than is evinced by any of the modern aboriginal races, by whom the mounds and their contents are regarded as utterly mysterious.

It is not to be wondered at that customs so widely spread and so deeply rooted as those connected with barrow-burial should have been difficult to eradicate. In fact, compliance with the Christian practice of inhumation in the cemeteries sanctioned by the church,was only enforced in Europe by capitularies denouncing the punishment of death on those who persisted in burying their dead after the Pagan fashion or in the Pagan mounds. Yet even in the Middle Ages kings were buried with their swords and spears, and queens with their spindles and ornaments; the bishop was laid in his grave with his crosier and comb, his chalice and vestments; and clay vessels filled with charcoal (answering to the urns of heathen times) are found with the interments in the churches of France and Denmark.

See Bateman, Ten Years' Diggings; Davis and Thurnam, Crania Britannica; Thurnam, “Ancient British Barrows,” in Archoeologia ; Canon Greenwell, Dr Angus Smith, and J. Anderson, “On Cairns in Argyle and Caithness,” in Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland; Petrie, Histories and Antiquities of Tara, and Round Towers of Ireland; Worsaae’s Antiquities of Denmark, translated by Thoms; Nicolaysen, Norske Fornlevningcr; Montelius, La Suède Préhistorique; Cochet, La Normandie Souterraine; Squier and Davis, Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley ; Stevens, Flint Chips-, Ferguson, Stone Monuments of dll Countries.