The hundred is now for most of its ancient purposes an obsolete division. The hundred courts were for the most part extinguished by a section in the County Courts Act, 1867, which enacts that no action which can be brought in a county court shall thenceforth be brought in a hundred court, or other inferior court, not being a court of record. The court of record for the hundred of Salford is an example of the survival of this ancient jurisdiction,

Perhaps the most important of the surviving duties of the hundred is its liability to make good damages occasioned by rioters. The 7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 31 consolidates and amends the laws relating to remedy against the hundred. The principal section enacts that, if any church, house, or other building or section shall be feloniously pulled down or destroyed, the hundred or other district in the nature of a hundred by whatever name it shall be denominated shall be liable to yield full compensation to the persons damnified, provided such person, or his servant having charge of the property, appear before a justice of the peace within seven days after the commission of the offence, to give information. Actions of this kind must be commenced within three months after the offence. The 17 and 18 Vict. c. 104 (Merchant Shipping Act) gives the same remedy in the case of a wrecked ship if plundered by a riotous assemblage, the hundred in or nearest to which the offence was committed being made liable.

The province of Hungary Proper and Transylvania, now united under one administration, and sometimes officially styled simply “Hungary,” lies between 44° 30' and 49° 35' N. lat. and between 16° and 26° 25' E. long., and comprises an area of 108,263 English square miles. It is bounded on the N. by Moravia, Silesia, and Galicia; on the E. by Bukowina and Moldavia; on the S. by Wallachia, Servia, and Croatia and Slavonia; and on the W. by Styria, Lower Austria, and Moravia. The narrow strip of country known as the Military Frontier, which stretches as a border line between Bosnia and Servia and the south of Croatia and Slavonia, prior to 1873 extended beyond the limits of that province, through Hungary Proper to Transylvania. The whole Military Frontier thus constituted formerly a joint crown land, consisting of the present Croatian-Slavonian frontier, and the so-called Servian-Bânât frontier, now incorporated into the province of Hungary Proper and Transylvania. The political changes introduced between 1868 and 1876 will be considered below.

With the exception of the short extent of seaboard on the Adriatic belonging to the Hungarian Littorale, the Hungarian monarchy is entirely surrounded by other countries. Its natural boundaries are for the most part well defined: on the N.W. and N. it is separated from Moravia, Silesia, and Galicia by the Carpathian mountains; on the E. and S.E. the Eastern Carpathians form a natural barrier between Transylvania and Moldavia and Wallachia; on the S. it is bounded by the Danube, Save, and Unna, which separate it from Servia and Bosnia; on the S.W. by Dalmatia and the Adriatic; and on the W., where its natural boundaries are not so ’ clearly marked, by Carniola, Styria, and Lower Austria. From the riveι Lajta or Leitha, which, like the March, forms a portion of the boundary of the last-mentioned province, originate the terms Cisleithan and Translei than, sometimes applied to the collective provinces of Austria and of Hungary respectively.

The mountains of Hungary belong to the two great European systems, the Carpathians and the Alps. The former extend in a semicircular form over the north and east of the monarchy, enclosing the whole of the left basin of the Danube from Dévény near Pozsony (Pressburg) to Orsova, while spurs of the Styrian Alps traverse the country in the west; to these latter belong also the Bakony and Vértes ranges. The Central Carpathians consist of several groups, among which the Tâtra mountains form the most imposing mass, having an average elevation of about 6000 feet, and attaining at some points an altitude of over 8000 feet. To the south of these are the various ranges of the Hungarian Ore-Mountains or Erzgebirge (Liptô, Zôlyom, Bars, Hont), and the midland chains which connect the Carpathians with the Styrian Alps. The Eastern Carpathians and Transylvanian highlands cover the greater part of Transylvania, and the eastern portion of the old Servian-Bânât; the Fogaras is the highest group, some crests of which, as, for instance, the Négoj, Bucsesd, and Vurfu Ourla, attain an elevation of between 8000 and 9000 feet. The low western mountains of Hungary which traverse Croatia and Slavonia belong to the Julian Alps. Taking a general survey, it will be observed that the greatest elevations are in the north of Hungary Proper, in the east and south of Transylvania, and in the eastern portion of the Bânât. In the Northern Carpathians large plateaus are not unfrequent, but in Transylvania the Alpine character predominates. The sides of the Carpathians are generally covered with forests to a considerable height, and on some favourable slopes barley, oats, wheat, and rye are cultivated. The mountainous lands in the south-west of the Hungarian monarchy are in elevation much inferior to those in the north and east, but their greater proximity to the sea and their frequently bare and rugged character cause them to have a considerable influence both on the climate and commercial relations of the country.

The great Carpathian and Alpine mountain systems enclose two extensive plains, the smaller of which, called the “Little Hungarian Alföld” or “Pressburg Basin,” covers an area of about 6000 square miles, and lies to the west of the Bakony and Mâtra ranges, which separate it from the “Pest Basin” or “Great Hungarian Alföld.” This is the largest plain in Europe, and comprises an area of about 37,000 square miles, with an average elevation of from 300 to 350 feet above the level of the sea. The Pest Basin extends over the greater portion 'of central and southern Hungary, and is traversed by the Theiss and its numerous tributaries. This immense tract of low land, though in some parts covered with barren wastes of sand, alternating with marshes, presents in general a very rich and productive soil. The monotonous aspect of the Alföld is in summer time varied by the déli-bàb, or Fata Morgana.

The geological constitution of the mountains of Hungary is on the whole similar to that of the Alps. The central axis is in some places composed of granite, on which crystalline schists are superposed; in other places the rocks are of Mesozoic age, and associated with Tertiary beds. Whilst the Palaeozoic formations are of comparatively rare occurrence, the Mesozoic attain a very considerable development. These latter in part crop out at the base of the granite and schistose mountain masses, or themselves are the nucleus of more extensive ranges. In some neighbourhoods independent mountain groups are formed by Tertiary strata. Alluvial formations constitute the general external crust out of which the mountains arise. Recent formations on the banks of rivers, more especially in the south at the junction of the Danube, Theiss, Ternes, Drave, and Save, are mainly confined to the tracts subject to the inundations of the same, but are here and there, as in the neighbourhood of Pest, Totis, Esztergom (Gran), and some parts of the Great Alföld, represented by accumulations of driftsand; and in other places, as for instance on the left bank of the lake of Totis, and at Szomod in Komârom county, there are deposits of calcareous tufa.

The numerous caverns deserve a passing notice. One of them, the Aggtelek cave, in the county of Gömör, is about 50 feet in breadth by 16 in height, and extends in its recesses for a length of several thousand feet. In it various fossil mammalian remains have been found. The Fonâcza cave, in the county of Bihar, has also yielded fossils. No less remarkable are the Okno, Vodi, and Deményfalva caverns in the county of Liptô, the Veterani in the Bânât, and the ice cave at Dobsina in Gömör county. Of the many interesting caverns in Transylvania the most remarkable are the sulphureous Büdös in the county of Hâromszék, the Almâs to the south of Udvarhely, and the brook-traversed rocky caverns of Csetate-Boli, Pestere, and Ponor in the southern mountains of Hunyad county.

Nature has amply provided the greater part of Hungary with both rivers and springs, but some trachytic and limestone mountainous districts show a marked deficiency in this respect. The Mâtra group, e.g., is poorly supplied, while the outliers of the Vértes mountains towards the Danube are almost entirely wanting in streams, and have but few water sources. A relative scarcity in running waters prevails in the whole region between the Danube and the Drave. The greatest proportionate deficiency, however, is observable in the arenaceous region between the Danube and Theiss, where for the most part only periodical floods occur. This, however, is far from being the case in the north and east of the kingdom, where the rivers and streams are numerous. The misfortune is that the rivers of Hungary nearly all flow either mediately or immediately to the Danube, and are therefore not available in any other direction as a means of external communication, and even within the country can only serve to a limited extent as water-ways. Thus the Theiss, the greatest wholly native river, is at the present time serviceable for regular steam navigation only as far as Szolnok, while the Maros cannot be navigated except at certain seasons and for a portion of its course; the Drave and the Save, in like manner, are only partly available for steam vessels. But although the length of permanent water-way in Hungary might be much increased by means of canals and other improvements, the Danube must still remain the only river communication with foreign countries, either by way of Austria or the Black Sea, on account of the insurmountable obstacles to connecting the small extent of Hungarian seaboard with the regions through which the Danube flows. This river, which is navigable during the whole of its course through Hungary, enters the monarchy at Dévény near Pressburg, and leaves it at Orsova on the Turkish frontier, receiving numerous tributaries in its course, among which are, on the right, the Raab, Drave, and Save, and, on the left, Waag, Neutra, Gran, Eipel, Theiss, Ternes, and Czerna. The breadth of the Danube is about 900 feet near its entrance, 1400 at Budapest. 1800 at Fôldvâr, and 3500 near Pétervârad (Peterwardein). Among the extensive islands formed by branches of the Danube are the Great Schiitt and the Csepel in its upper course. The Theiss, the greatest tributary of the Danube, rises in the north-east, in the county of Mâramaros, and flowing first in a north-westerly and afterwards in a southerly direction ultimately joins the main river near Tittel, draining in its course the Great Hungarian Plain. Amongst the many affluents of the Theiss are (r.) the Bodrog, Sajö, and Zagyva, and (Z.) the Szamos, Körös, and the Maros, which last, after traversing Transylvania and eastern Hungary, joins the Theiss at Szeged. The Save, rising in Carniola, winds through Croatia, is fed by the Unna and Kulpa, and falls into the Danube at Belgrade. It will be observed that the whole river system of Hungary belongs to the Danube or the Theiss,—the Poprâd, which runs through the county of Szepes (Zips), alone having a northerly course, and flowing to the Dunajec, an affluent of the Vistula. The south-western or Trans-Danubian division of Hungary Proper, although comparatively meagre in water-courses, includes the two principal lakes.

The Balaton or Platten-See, the largest lake, not only in Hungary, but in the whole of the Austrian-Hungarian dominions, lies between the counties of Veszprém, Somogy, and Zala, is about 47 miles in length by 3 to 9 in breadth, and with the surrounding marshes occupies an area of about 400 square miles. It is supplied by the river Zala, 31 small streams, and 9 springs, while its surplus waters are carried off by the Sio. Phenomena peculiar to the Balaton lake are, that it sometimes becomes violently agitated without any apparent cause, and that in seasons of severe cold the ice on its surface occasionally bursts with a loud report. It is navigable for steamers, and abounds in fish. The Fertö or Neusiedler See lies in the counties of Moson and Sopron, and with the Hansâg marsh covers an area of some 130 square miles; it is about 23 miles in length by 6 to 8 in breadth, is very shallow, and its waters are strongly impregnated with salt and soda. In 1865 the bed became almost dry, but since 1870 it has filled again. The other lowland lakes, as, for instance, the Palics near Szabadka (Maria-Theresiopel) and the Velencze in the county of Fehér, are much smaller. Morasses and pools are generally frequent in the vicinity of the Danube and Theiss. The most extensive marshy region is the Sârrét, which covers a considerable portion of the counties of Jâsz-Kun-Szolnok, Békés, and Bihar. The Ecsedi Lâp in the county of Szatmâr is now for the most •part drained; and the Alibunâr and Illancsa marshes in the county of Torontâl will also be soon laid dry. Many thousands of acres of marsh land have already been reclaimed in Hungary, and hydraulic operations bid fair to still further reduce the extent of the marshy districts. In the deep hollows between the peaks of the Carpathians are to be found the curious mountain lakes called “eyes of the sea of these there are at least thirty-eight in the Tâtra alone.

The canals of Hungary are still far from sufficient for the wants of the country, although lately many improvements have been introduced, and enormous cuttings made in certain places to relieve the rivers from periodical overflow. The most important canal is the Ferencz or “Francis,” which traverses the county of Bâcs. It is some 70 miles in length, and shortens very considerably the passage between the Theiss and the Danube. A branch of this canal called Uj Csatorna, or “New Channel,” extends from Kis-Sztapâr, a few miles below Zombor, to Ujvidék opposite Peterwardein. The Béga canal runs from Nagy-Becskerek, in the county of Torontâl, to beyond Temesvâr, but is not navigable throughout. Among other canals are the Versecz in the county of Ternes; the Berzava in the county of Torontâl; the Siô, which connects the Balaton with the Danube; the Kapos or Zichy in the counties of Somogy, Baranya, and Tolna; and the Sdrviz or Nâdor, which runs through the counties of Fehér and Tolna.

On the Adriatic, at the northern extremity of the short line of sea-coast known as the “Hungarian Littorale,” lies the port of Fiume (q.υ.), which is the only direct outlet by sea for the produce of Hungary. Its commanding position at the head of the Gulf of Quarnero, and spacious new harbour works, as also its immediate connexions with both the Austrian and Hungarian railway systems, render it specially advantageous as a commercial port. As shipping stations, Buccari, Portoré, Selce, Novi, Zengg, Cirquenizza, San Giorgio, Stinizza, Jablanac, and Carlopago are of comparative insignificance. The whole of the short Hungarian seaboard is mountainous, and subject to violent winds.

The climate of Hungary, owing to the physical configuration of the country, varies considerably. If we except Transylvania, three separate zones are roughly distinguishable :—the “highland,” comprising the counties in the vicinity of the Northern and Eastern Carpathians, where the winters are very severe and continue for half the year; the “intermediate” zone, embracing the tract of country stretching northwards from the Drave and Mur, with the Little Hungarian Plain, and the region of the Upper Alföld, extending from Budapest to Nyiregyhâza and Sârospatak; and the “great lowland” zone, including the main portion of the Great Hungarian Plain, and the region of the lower Danube, where the heat during the summer months is almost tropical. In Transylvania the climate bears the extreme characteristics peculiar to mountainous countries interspersed with valleys; whilst that of the south-western Croatian and Frontier districts bordering on the Adriatic is modified by the neighbourhood of the sea. The minimum of the temperature is attained in January and the maximum in July. At Buda, which, if we exclude Transylvania, is near the centre of the kingdom, the mean average temperature (1862-77) in January i⅛ 31" 0' and in July 71° 7'; at Kolozsvâr (Klausenburg) in the same months it is 32° 7' and 68" 9' respectively. The rainfall in Hungary is small in comparison with that of Austria. At Buda, where the number of rainy days is 122, the rainfall is about 21∣ inches, whilst in the two Hungarian plains generally the rainy days are estimated not to exceed 96 annually. In the vicinity of the Carpathians, however, rain is very prevalent, amounting to between 30 and 40 inches. In these regions the greatest fall is during the summer, though in some years the autumn showers are heavier. Hail storms are of frequent occurrence in the Carpathians. On the plains rain rarely falls during the heats of summer; and, generally speaking, the showers though violent are of but short duration, whilst the moisture is quickly evaporated owing to the aridity of the atmosphere. The vast sandy wastes mainly contribute to the dryness of the winds on the Great Hungarian Alföld. Occasionally, as in the year 1863, the whole country suffers much from drought; but, on the other hand, disastrous floods not unfrequently occur, particularly in the spring, when the beds of the rivers and streams are inadequate to contain the increased volume of water caused by the rapid melting of the snows on the Carpathians. The low-lying arable and pasture lands in the vicinity of the Theiss and Maros are thus sometimes submerged for weeks, and in March 1879 the town of Szeged, situated at the point of junction of these two rivers, was almost completely destroyed. In December of the same year the counties of Arad and Bihar were extensively inundated by the Maros and the Körös. In 1838 the city of Pest, and in February 1876 several localities on the Danube, suffered disastrously from the sudden rising of that river. The average annual number of snow showers is estimated at 23 for the two Hungarian plains, 44 for Transylvania, 50 for the northern, and 30 to 35 for the western and south-western portions of the monarchy. In 1866—67, and again in 1872—73, cholera was very rife; of the 447,571 persons who were attacked by the epidemic in the latter case, 189,017, or over 42 per cent., died. Nevertheless Hungary cannot, on the whole, be regarded as an unhealthy country, excepting in the marshy tracts, where intermittent fever and diphtheria sometimes exhibit great virulence.

The whole of Hungary, but more especially Hungary Proper, can boast of the great variety and number of its natural productions. This is attributable partly to its geographical position, but chiefly to the varied nature of its surface and climate. The fertility of the soil, if we except the mountainous and sandy regions, is remarkable. The vegetable products include almost every description of grain, especially wheat and maize, besides Turkish pepper, rapeseed, hemp and flax, beans, potatoes, and root crops. Fruits of various descriptions, and more particularly melons and stone fruits, are abundant. In the southern districts almonds, figs, rice, and olives are grown. Amongst the forest and other trees are the oak, which yields large quantities of galls, the beech, fir, pine, ash, and alder, also the chestnut, walnut, and filbert. The vine is cultivated over the greater part of Hungary, the chief grape-growing districts being those of the Hegyalja (Tokay), Sopron, and Ruszt, Mènes, Szerémség, Szekszârd, Somlyô (Schomlau), Béllye and Villâny, Balaton, Neszmély, Visonta, Eger (Erlau), and Buda. Next to France, Hungary is the greatest wine-producing country in Europe, and the quality of some of the vintages, especially that of Tokay, is unsurpassed. A great quantity of tobacco is also grown, but it is wholly monopolized by the crown. In Hungary Proper and in Croatia and Slavonia there are many species of indigenous plants, which are unrepresented in Transylvania. Besides 12 species peculiar to the former grand-principality, 14 occur only there and in Siberia.

The fauna of Hungary includes about 14,000 species. The horned cattle are amongst the finest in Europe, and large herds of swine are reared in the oak forests. In 1870 the total number of cattle (including 73,243 buffaloes) was estimated at 5,279,193, and of swine at 4,443,279. Of sheep, the breed of which is now greatly improved, the number amounted to 15,076,997; of horses there were 2,158,819, asses 30,480, mules 3,266, and goats 572,95L The wild animals are bears, wolves, foxes, lynxes, wild cats, badgers, otters, martens, stoats, and weasels. Among the rodents there are hares, marmots, beavers, squirrels, rats, and mice,—the last in enormous swarms. Of the larger game the chamois and deer are specially noticeable. Among the birds are the...