Lebanon and Antilibanus have many features in common; in both the southern portion is less arid and barren than the northern, the western valleys better wooded and more fertile than the eastern. In general the main elevations of the two ranges form pairs lying opposite one another; the forms of both ranges are monotonous, but the colouring splendid, especially when viewed from a distance; when seen close at hand, indeed, only a few valleys with perennial streams offer pictures of landscape beauty, their rich green contrasting pleasantly with the bare brown and yellow mountain sides.

Geology.— The Lebanon strati are generally inclined, curved, and twisted, often vertical, seldom quite horizontal. Throughout the whole of Syria the prevailing line of cleavage runs from north to south; subordinate to this is another at right angles to it. The rocks belong to the Middle Chalk system, and fall into four subdivisions. The first consists of an under hippurite zone about 3000 feet thick. Sometimes light grey dolomites boldly rise to a height of several hundred yards (as in Kesrawân); sometimes masses of marble present equally grand mountain forms (Jezzin); sometimes again friable marl and clay occur, producing rich pasture lands. The last member of this lower zone is a brown oolite containing sponges, corals, and echinoderms, amongst which the best known fossil is Cidaris glandarius (Salima). Here also belong the Radiolaria of Hakel, above which occurs the famous bed of fossil fishes. The second subdivision of the Middle Chalk consists of a thick sandstone formation, distinguished by the presence of Trigonia scabra and syriaca, and by a fossil balsam poplar (Nicolia). To the period of the formation of this member of the system belong volcanic eruptions of melaphyre and basaltite, and also copious eruptions of ashes, which are now met with as tufa in the neighbourhood of the igneous rocks. These eruptive rocks, which every where have again been overlaid by the thick sandstone, yield bitumen (mineral oils, asphalt, and dysodil), and have also had a great influence upon the superficial aspect of the country, the sandstone stratum (1300 to 1600 feet thick) having become the centre of its life and fertility, inasmuch as here alone water can gather. In the third subdivision, the Turon strictly so-called, oyster beds (Ostrea africana') and a stratum of orbitulites have the widest diffusion. Above the oysters come the ammonites (Ammonites syriacus, Von Buch). The fourth subdivision is formed by a light grey chalk of the upper hippurite zone, which begins in the Bukâ'a, and can be traced as far as to the Red Sea. The latest member is the Eocene nummulite (especially in Antilibanus). Generally speaking the prevailing colours are white in the first district, brown in the second, yellow in the third, and grey in the fourth. Apart from the formations already named, there only remain to be mentioned one or two more recent Tertiaries, which in some cases may go back to the end of the Miocene period, but for the most part are Pliocene. They are met with partly on the coast, being due to the action of the sea (Tripoli), partly in the Bukâ'a (Zahleh), the result of the action of fresh water. Finally, throughout the whole of the Lebanon district, there are unmistakable traces of ice action in the shape of ground moraines and erratic blocks. The glacier remains may practically be said to be associated with the four chief streams (Nahr Kadisha, Jôz, Ibrâhîm, and Kelb).

Vegetation.— The western versant has the common characteristics of the flora of the Mediterranean coast, but the eastern portion belongs to the poorer region of the steppes, and the Mediterranean species are met with only sporadically along the water-courses. Forest and pasture land in our sense of the word do not exist: the place of the first is for the most part taken by a low brushwood; grass is not plentiful, and the higher ridges maintain a growth of alpine plants only so long as patches of snow continue to lie. The rock walls harbour some rock plants, but many absolutely barren wildernesses of stone occur. (1) On the western versant, as we ascend, we have first, to a height of 1600 feet, the coast region, similar to that of Syria in general and of the south of Asia Minor. Characteristic trees are the locust tree and the stone pine; in Melia Azedarach and Ficus Sycomorus (Beyrout) we have an admixture of foreign and partially subtropical elements. The great mass of the vegetation, however, is of the low-growing type (maquis or garrigue of the western Mediterranean), with small and stiff leaves, and frequently thorny and aromatic, as for example the ilex (Quercus coccifera), Smilax, Cistus, Lentiscus, Calycotome, &c. (2) Next comes, from 1600 to 6500 feet, the mountain region, which may also be called the forest region, still exhibiting as it does sparse woods and isolated trees wherever shelter, moisture, and the bad husbandry of the inhabitants have permitted their growth. From 1600 to 3200 feet is a zone of dwarf hard-leaved oaks, amongst which occur the Oriental forms Fontanesia phillyraeoides, Acer syriacum, and the beautiful red-stemmed Arbutus Andrachne. Higher up, between 3700 feet and 4200 feet, a tall pine, Pinus Brutia, Ten., is characteristic. Between 4200 and 6200 feet is the region of the two most interesting forest trees of Lebanon, the cypress and the cedar. The former still grows thickly, especially in the valley of the Kadisha; the horizontal is the prevailing variety. In the upper Kadisha valley there is a cedar grove of about three hundred trees, amongst which five are of gigantic size; it is alleged that other specimens occur elsewhere in Lebanon. The Cedrus Libani is intermediate between the Cedrus Deodara and the C. atlantica (see Cedar). The cypress and cedar zone exhibits a variety of other leaf-bearing and coniferous trees; of the first may be mentioned several oaks— Quercus Hellul, Q. subalpina (Kotschy), Q. Cerris, and the hop-hornbeam (Ostrya); of the second class the rare Cilician silver fir (Abies cilicica') may be noticed. Next come the junipers, sometimes attaining the size of trees (Juniperus excelsa, J. rufescens, and, with fruit as large as plums, J. drupacea). But the chief ornament of Lebanon is the Rhododendron ponticum, with its brilliant purple flower clusters; a peculiar evergreen, Vinca libanotica, also adds beauty to this zone. (3) Into the alpine region (6200 to 10,400 feet) penetrate a few very stunted oaks (Quercus subalpina, Kotschy), the junipers already mentioned, and a barberry (Berberis cretica), which sometimes spreads into close thickets. Then follow the low, dense, prone, pillow-like dwarf bushes, thorny and grey, common to the Oriental highlands— Astragalus and the peculiar Acaηtholimon. They are found up to within 300 feet of the highest summits. Upon the exposed mountain slopes rhubarb (Rheum Ribes) is noticeable, and also a vetch (Vicia canescens, Lab.) excellent for sheep. The spring vegetation, which lasts until July, appears to be rich, especially as regards corollabearing plants, such as Corydalis, Gagea, Bidbillaria, Colchicum, Puschkinia, Geranium, Ornithogalum, <kc. The flora of the highest ridges, along the edges of the snow patches, exhibits no forms related to our northern alpine flora, but suggestions of it are found in a Draba, an Androsace, an Al sine, and a violet, occurring, however, only in local species. Upon the highest summits are found Saponaria Pumilio (resembling our Silene acaulis) and varieties of Galium, Euphorbia, Astragalus, Veronica, Jurinea, Festuca, Scrophularia, Geranium, Asphodeline, Allium, Asperula; and, on the margins of the snow fields, a Taraxacum and Ranunculus demissus. The alpine flora of Lebanon thus connects itself directly with the Oriental flora of lower altitudes, and is unrelated to the glacial flora of Europe and northern Asia.

Zoology.— There is nothing of special interest about the fauna of Lebanon. Bears are no longer numerous; the panther and the ounce are met with; the wild hog, hyaena, wolf, and fox are by no means rare; jackals and gazelles are very common. The polecat and hedgehog also occur. As a rule there are not many birds, but the eagle and the vulture may occasionally be seen; of eatable kinds partridges and wild pigeons are the most abundant. In some places the bat occasionally multiplies so as actually to become a plague.

Geography.— The district to the west of Lebanon, averaging about six hours in breadth, slopes in an intricate series of plateaus and terraces to the Mediterranean. The coast is for the most part abrupt and rocky, often leaving room for only a narrow path along the shore, and when viewed from the sea it does not lead one to have the least suspicion of the extent of country lying between its cliffs and the lofty summits behind. Most of the mountain spurs run from east to west, but in northern Lebanon the prevailing direction of the valleys is north-westerly, and in the south some ridges also run parallel with the principal chain. The valleys have for the most part been deeply excavated by the rapid mountain streams which traverse them; the apparently inaccessible heights are crowned by numerous villages, castles, or cloisters embosomed among trees. Of the streams which are perennial, the most worthy of note, beginning from the north, are the Nahr Akkâr, N. Arkr, N. el-Bârid, N. Kadisha, “the holy river” (the valley of which begins far up in the immediate neighbourhood of the highest summits, and rapidly descends in a series of great bends till the river reaches the sea at Tripoli), Wâdy el-Jôz (falling into the sea at Batπin), Wâdy Fidâr, Nahr Ibrâhîm (the ancient Adonis, having its source in a recess of the great mountain amphitheatre where the famous sanctuary Apheca, the modern Afka, lay), Nahr el-Kelb (the ancient Lycus), Nahr Beirüt (the ancient Magoras, entering the sea at Beyrout), Nahr Dâmûr (ancient Tam-yras), Nahr el-'Auwaly (the ancient Bostrenus, which in the upper part of its course is joined by the Nahr el-Bariιk). The 'Auwaly and the Nahr el-Zaherâni, the only other streams that fall to be mentioned before we reach the Litâny, flow north-east to south-west, in consequence of the interposition of a ridge subordinate and parallel to the central chain. On the north, where the mountain bears the special name of Jebel Akkâr, the main ridge of Lebanon rises gradually from the plain. A number of valleys run to the north and north-east, among which must be mentioned that of the Nahr el-Kebir, the Eleutherus of the ancients, which takes its rise in the Jebel el-Abyad on the eastern slope of Lebanon, and afterwards, skirting the district, flows westward to the sea. To the south of Jebel el-Abyad, beneath the main ridge, which as a rule falls away suddenly towards the east, occur several small elevated terraces having a southward slope; among these the Wâdi en-Nusûr (“vale of eagles”), and the basin of the lake Yammûna, with its intermittent spring Neb'a el-Arba'in, deserve special mention. Of the streams which descend into the Bukâ'a, only the Berdâni need be named; it rises in Jebel Sunnin, and enters the plain by a deep and picturesque mountain cleft at Zahleh. With regard to height, the most elevated summits occur in the north, but even these are of very gentle gradient, and are ascended quite easily. The names and the elevations of the several peaks, which even in summer are covered with snow, have been very variously given by different explorers; according to the most accurate accounts the “Cedar block” consists of a double line of four and three summits respectively, ranged from north to south, with a deviation of about 35°. Those to the east are 'Uyùn Urghush, Makmal, Muskiyya (or Naba' esh-Shemaila), and Râs Zahr el-Kazib; fronting the sea are Karn Saudâ or Timârun, Fumm el-Mizâb, and Zahr el-Kandil. The height of Zahr el-Kazib, by barometric measurement, is 10,018 feet; that of the others is almost the same. South from them is the pass (8351 feet) which leads from Baalbec to Tripoli; the great mountain amphitheatre on the west side of its summit is remarkable. Further to the south is a second group of lofty summits—the snow-capped Sunnin, visible from Beyrout; its height is 8554 feet, or, according to other accounts, 8895 feet. Between this group and the more southerly Jebel Kuneiseh (about 6700 feet) lies the pass (4700 feet) now traversed by the French post road between Beyrout and Damascus. Among the other bare summits still further south are the long ridge of Jebel el-Barιik (about 7000 feet), the Jebel Niha, with the Tau'amat Niha (about 6100 feet), near which is a pass to Sidon, and the Jebel Rihân (about 5400 feet).

The Bukâ'a, the broad valley which separates Lebanon from Antilibanus, is watered by two rivers having their watershed near Baalbec, at an elevation of about 3600 feet, and separated only by a short mile at their sources. That flowing northwards, El-*Asy, is the ancient Orontes; the other is the Litâny. In the lower part of its course the latter has scooped out for itself a deep and narrow rocky bed; at Burghuz it is spanned by a great natural bridge. Not far from the point where it suddenly trends to the west lie, immediately above the romantic valley, at an elevation of 1500 feet, the imposing ruins of the old castle KaΓat esh-Shakif, near one of the passes to Sidon. In its lower part the Litâny bears the name of Nahr el-Kasimiyeh. Neither the Orontes nor the Litâny has any important affluent.

The Bukâ'a used to be known as Coelesyria (Strabo, xvi. 2, 21), but that word as cmployed by .the ancients had a much more extensive application. At present its full name is BukA'a el-'Aziz (the dear BukA'a), and its northern portion is known as Sahlet Ba c albek (the plain of Baalbec). The valley is from 4 to 6 miles broad, with an undulating surface. It is said to contain one hundred and thirty-seven hamlets or settlements, the larger of which skirt the hills, while the smaller, consisting of mud hovels, stand upon dwarf mounds, the debris of ages. The whole valley could be much more richly cultivated than it is at present; but fever is frequent.

The Antilibanus chain has in many respects been much less fully explored than that of Lebanon. Apart from its southern offshoots it is 67 miles long, while its width varies from 16 to 13⅛ miles. It rises from the plain of Hasya-Homs, and in its northern portion is very arid and barren. The range has not so many offshoots as occur on the west side of Lebanon; under its precipitous slopes stretch table-lands and broad plateaus, which, especially on the east side looking towards the steppe, steadily increase in width. Along the western side of northern Antilibanus stretches the KhashA'a, a rough red region lined with juniper trees, a succession of the hardest limestone crests and ridges, bristling with bare rock and crag that shelter tufts of vegetation, and are divided by a succession of grassy ravines. On the eastern side the parallel valley of 'Asal el-Ward deserves special mention; the descent towards the plain eastwards, as seen for example at Ma'lιila, is singular,— first a spacious amphitheatre and then two deep very narrow gorges. The perennial streams that take their rise in Antilibanus are not numerous; one of the finest and best watered valleys is that of Helbùn, the ancient Chalybon, the Helbon of Ezek. xxvii. 18. The highest points of the range, reckoning from the north, are Halimat el-Kabu (8257 feet), which has a splendid view; the Fatly block, including TaΓat Mûsa (8721 feet) and the adjoining Jebel Nebi BArιih (7900 feet); and a third group near BlιidAn, in which the most prominent names are Shakif, AkhyAr, and Abu’l-Hin (8330 feet). Of the valleys descending westward the first to claim mention is the Wady Yafιifa; a little further to the south, lying north and south, is the rich upland valley of ZebedAni, where the BaradA has its highest sources. Pursuing an easterly course of several hours, this stream receives the waters of the romantic 'Ain Fije (which doubles its volume), and bursts out by a rocky gateway upon the plain of Damascus, in the irrigation of which it is the chief agent. It is the Amana of 2 Kings V. 12; the portion of Antilibanus traversed by it was also called by the same name (Cant. iv. 8). The French post road after leaving the BukA'a first enters a little valley running north and south, where a projecting ridge of Antilibanus bears the ruins of the ancient cities Chalcis and Gerrha. It next traverses the gorge of WAdy el-Harir, the level upland Sahlet Judeideh, the ravine of WAdy el-Karn, the ridge of 'Akabat et-Tin, the descent Daurat el-BillAn, and finally the unpeopled plain of DimAs, from which it enters the valley of BaradA. This route marks the southern boundary of Antilibanus proper, where the Hermon group begins (vol. xi. p. 751). From the point where this continuation of Antilibanus begins to take a more westerly direction, a low ridge shoots out towards the south-west, trending further and further away from the eastern chain and narrowing the BukA'a; upon the eastern side of this ridge lies the elevated valley or hilly stretch known as WAdy et-Teim. In the north, beside 'Ain FAlιij, it is connected by a low watershed with the BukA'a; from the gorge of the LitAny it is separated by the ridge of Jebel ed-Dahr. At its southern end it contracts and merges into the plain of Banias, thus enclosing Mount Hermon on its north-west and west sides; eastward from the HasbAny branch of the Jordan lies the meadow-land Merj 'lyùn, the ancient Ijon (1 Kings xv. 20).

Political Divisions and Population. — The inhabitants of Lebanon have at no time played a conspicuous part in history. There are remains of prehistoric occupation, but we do not even know what races dwelt there in the historical period of antiquity. Probably they belonged partly to Canaanite, but chiefly to the Aramaean group of nationalities; the Bible mentions Hivites (Judg. iii. 3) and Giblites (Josh, xiii. 5). A portion of the western coast land was always, it may be assumed, in the hands of the Phoenician states, and it is possible that once and again their sovereignty may have extended even into the Buka a. Lebanon was also included within the ideal boundaries of the land of Israel, and the whole region was well known to the Hebrews, by whose poets its many excellences are often praised. In the Roman period the district of Phcenice extended into Lebanon; in the 2d century it, along with the inland districts pertaining to it, constituted a subdivision of the province of Syria, having Emesa (Homs) for its capital; from the time of Diocletian there was a Phcenice ad Libanum, with Emesa as capital, as well as a Phoenice Maritima of which Tyre was the chief city. Remains of the Roman period occur throughout Lebanon, and more especially in Hermon, in the shape of small temples in more or less perfect preservation; for the more splendid ruins of Baalbec see that article (vol. iii. p. 176). Although Christianity early obtained a footing in Lebanon, the pagan worship, and even human sacrifice, nevertheless survived for a long time, especially in remote valleys such as Afka. The present inhabitants are for the most part of Syrian (Aramaean) descent; Islam and the Arabs have at no time penetrated very deep into the mountain land. At present the eastern range belongs to the vilayet of Damascus (Soria), of which Damascus itself constitutes the first subdivision (mutasaτriflik); the subordinate divisions (kazas) of the government are Damascus, Baalbec, Hasbaya, Rashaya, and Buka , a Gharbi or Western BukA'a. Included within the vilayet...