The style of South is vigorous, pungent, and brilliant, though tending to exuberance. His sermons are strongly practical, but his theory of life is not ascetic. His wit generally inclines towards sarcasm, and it was probably the knowledge of his quarrelsome temperament that prevented his promotion to a bishopric. If he sacrificed principle to his desire for preferment, his ambition was not of a sordid kind, for he was noted for the extent of his charities. He published a large number of single sermons, and they appeared in a collected form in 1692 in six volumes, reaching a second edition in his lifetime in 1715. His Opera Posthuma Latina, including his will, his Latin poems, and his orations while public orator, with memoirs of his life, appeared in 1717. His Works were published with a memoir by the Clarendon press in 1823, and have been several times reprinted. The contemporary notice of South by Wood in his Athenae is characterized by a strongly hostile tone, partly to be explained by a criticism of South at Wood’s expense.

The southern coast-line shows two large gulfs, Spencer and St Vincent,—the first 180 miles long, the other 100. Spencer Gulf is open to the ocean, while St Vincent Gulf is partly shielded by Kangaroo Island, with Investigator Straits as its westerly entrance and Backstairs Passage for an easterly one. Yorke Peninsula separates the two gulfs. Port Lincoln and Sleaford Bay are at the south-west of Spencer Gulf. On the western side of Eyria Peninsula— the land westward of Spencer Gulf—are the following bays :—Coffin, Anxious, Venus, Streaky, Denial, and Fowler. The junction of South and Western Australia is on the Australian Bight. Encounter Bay is on the Victorian side, with Lacepede, Guichen, Rivoli, and Macdonnell Bays to the south-east. Flinders, Investigator, and Nuyt Islands are south-west. Cape Jervis is at the eastern entrance of St Vincent Gulf, Spencer at the western. In Northern Territory are Melville, Adam, Arnhem, and Raffles Bays, Van Diemen’s Gulf, Port Essington, and Port Darwin (lat. 12° S.). The Gulf of Carpentaria divides the territory from Cape York Peninsula of Queensland. Melville, Bathurst, and Groote-Eylandt are northern islands. The ranges of hills are few, rarely reaching 3000 feet. One chain runs north from Cape Jervis. Flinders range has Brown and Arden, 3000 feet. Lofty, near Adelaide, is 2330 feet. Volcanic cones, as Gambier and Schanck, are south-east, near Victoria. In general the country is level, where not slightly undulating. It is far from being well watered, especially to the westward and in the interior. The Murray, passing through Lake Victoria, had previously received most of the drainage of the three eastern colonies. The Torrens flows by Adelaide. Few streams reach the ocean. Cooper’s Creek drains part of Western Queensland. The Indian seas receive the Alligator, Liverpool, Roper, Macarthur, Daly and Victoria rivers. Albert and the Coorong are lakes at the Murray mouth. The depressed area northward contains Lakes Torrens, Eyre, Gairdner, Blanche, Hope, and Amadeus. The overland telegraph to Port Darwin passes mostly through an ill-watered country, with oases around springs. The population, 330,000, is principally within 100 miles of Adelaide, the capital, in lat. 35° S. The leading places north of Adelaide are Gawler, 25 miles, Barossa 38, Kapunda 49, Angaston 51, Port Wakefield 60, Clare 90, Kooringa of Burra Burra 100, Moonta 100 north-west, Kadina 96 north-west, Blyth 100, Morgan or North-West Bend 105, Broughton 150, St Petersburg 154, Port Pirie 155 north-west, Port Augusta 240 northwest, Colton 320, Blinman 350. To the east are Barker 21, Echunga 23, Nairne 25, Kingston or Port Caroline 170 south-east, Narracoorte 220, Penola 250, Gambier 290, Macdonnell 304. Lincoln is 210 west. Adelaide Port is 7, Glenelg 7, Brighton 10, Willunga 30 south; Goolwa, the Murray port, is 60 south. Palmerston of Port Darwin is the chief town of Northern Territory; Southport is 25 miles south of it. Other settlements are inland mining townships. There are 36 counties, 4 pastoral districts, 23 municipalities, and 112 district councils in South Australia proper.

Climate.— Excepting Western Australia, this is the driest portion of the island continent. The rain clouds from the Pacific or the Indian Ocean have little store left on reaching the South Australian districts. The north-west summer monsoons favour the northern coast-lands, though the rains penetrate but few miles inland. The trade-winds bring only dry blasts from the Queensland side. A large proportion of the south-western shore has a very partial deposition, and even the southern Yorke Peninsula, laved by two great gulfs, seldom shows any surface water. The conflict between the polar and equatorial currents occasionally throws down rain in the interior, though many a thunderstorm fails to let fall more than a few drops. But the south-eastern coast catches a fair amount of rain from the western breezes off the Southern Ocean. The settled districts have winter rains, when Adelaide plains are transformed from parched sterility to luxuriant vegetation. The average annual rainfall there is but 20 inches, with an evaporation of three times that amount. In 1885 (a dry year) Adelaide had only 16 inches. In some years only 5 inches have fallen, even on parts of the sea-shore. The interior, however, has been known to have extensive floods after sudden storms. The northern coast, as at Port Darwin, has from 50 to 70 inches, though for several months without a shower. The heat is considerable during the dry summer time, though cold is felt severely on winter mornings and nights, even in the tropics, when a dozen degrees of frost may be followed in a few hours by a temperature of 80° or 90°.

The health conditions of the colony are but little inferior, except in Adelaide and Port Darwin, to those ruling in Tasmania and New Zealand, which are so much cooler and wetter. Dry heat is never so prejudicial as a moist heat. A raging hot wind from the north and north-west, to which Adelaide is so unpleasantly exposed, is trying to young children, though it never brings noxious gases. On the contrary, when passing over eucalyptus forests it brings down health-giving airs, in spite of 160° in the sun, or even 120° in the shade. Diarrhoea may trouble in summer, and catarrh in winter; but, with a birth-rate of 39 in the thousand and a death-rate of from 12 to 17, South Australia stands more favourably than England in relation to health. Recently, several townships had for the year but seven deaths in the thousand, exhibiting a freedom from mortality three times greater than London. The death-rate of the colony during 1885 was only 12·48 to the thousand, while the birth-rate· was 37·70. One-third of the deaths were in Adelaide. Reports from the tropical Northern Territory speak of fever and ague, especially among imprudent gold-miners.

Geology.— The few mountain ranges scattered throughout the colony were once, in all probability, but islands rising in a mediterranean sea that connected the Indian Ocean and Java Sea with the Southern Ocean. Over at least the southern half of South Australian territory the water flowed in Tertiary times. The climatic effect of such an archipelago of islands must have been very different from what now is realized in that region. The rise of the country displayed that vast extent of arenaceous limestone forming the southern coast floor, and extending westward hundreds of miles in Western Australia, and far eastward in Victoria. The south coast is still rising. The Murray cuts its channel through this vast coralline formation. According to the Rev. J. Tenison Woods, the newer Pliocene is near Adelaide, while the older is at Mount Gambier. The Murray cliffs are Upper Miocene, and the Murray flats are Lower Miocene. He finds little or none of Eocene. Flint bands occur in this limestone, particularly at Gambier. The Biscuit country, south-east, has flat limestone concretionary cakes on the surface, more or less rounded. Beds of sand cover large areas of the recent rock. Caves abound in the Gambier district, provided with stalactites and stalagmites. Subterranean rivers flow through some of the caverns, and are occasionally reached by natural sloping wells. Gambier exhibits much Bryozoan limestone. Its 40 species and 16 genera of Polyzoa are in Lower Crag. The coral limestone there has extensive flint bands. Foraminifera are of many kinds; some of the Rhizopods are still existing in Australian waters. Sharks’ teeth and large nautili are frequently met with. Most fossils are in casts, except Pecten, Bryozoa, Echini, &c. The Murray cliffs mark the remains of an extensive formation, since largely denuded. The Gambier deposits prove the presence of an ancient deep sea, when little of Australia, as we now perceive it, had any existence. The South Australian ranges are generally of Primary order, the Silurian formation being often pierced or flooded by igneous rocks, which have transmuted the strata. While granites and granitoids are in great masses, the basalts and greenstones of a later age are not wanting in the ranges. The Primary rocks are observed, also, in Eyria Peninsula, Port Lincoln, the central continental districts, aud very prominently in the Northern Territory. Flat-topped sandstone hills prevail northward. Westward and south-eastward the Tertiary rests on a granite floor. Eastward there is the same Primary presence, with crystalline mountains developing silver mines just over the border. Metamorphic rocks, rising amidst Tertiary beds, are strong in Yorke Peninsula, producing much copper. The tablelands are of horizontal sandstone, often on spiriferous limestone. Desert sandstone may be Miocene. Near the Victorian boundary, in the south-east corner of South Australia, recent volcanic action is apparent. Several of the lakes there were once craters. The deep Blue Lake, or Devil’s Inkstand, occupies the centre of Mount Gambier. The banks are nearly 300 feet high, and are formed of lavas and volcanic ashes. Cinder walls are detected, and other varieties of volcanic products. Several smaller cones surround the great mount. The country itself is of the usual Tertiary limestone, more or less covered with ashes. Mount Schanck, between Gambier and the sea, is known as the Devil’s Punchbowl. This cone of lava has an empty crater 200 feet deep. Gambier and Schanck are landmarks to passing mariners. Among the fossil forms in Tertiary Pliocene strata are those of the huge Diprotodon, a marsupial vegetable feeder 16 feet in height, with gigantic kangaroos, emus, wombats, &c.

Minerals.— South Australia, though without coal, was the first Australian colony to have a metallic mine, and the first to possess a gold mine. In 1841 the wheel of a dray, going over a hill near Adelaide, disclosed to view silver-lead ore. In the midst of the bad times in 1843 the Kapunda copper mine was found. In 1845 the wonderful Burra Burra copper was first wrought. The land, 10,000 acres, cost £10,000; and for several years the dividends to shareholders were 800 per cent. per annum. The first colonial mineral export was 30 tons of lead ore, value £128, in 1843. The copper declined as prices fell. It was £322,983 in 1885, when rates were £50 a ton, but £762,386 ten years before with over £90. In 1886 most of the mines were closed. Between 250 and 400 miles north of Adelaide a very rich copper district exists. Lead is very abundant. Manganese, nickel, bismuth, antimony, and silver have been mined. Tin is seen in granitic places. Iron occurs in almost all formations and in all conditions. There is abundance of haematite, micaceous, bog, and other ores rich in the metal. Talisker and other mines paid in silver. The wonderful Silverton, of Barrier Ranges, in a desert, is just outside the boundary, though 300 miles only from Adelaide while 600 from Sydney. Gold was got from a quartz vein at the Victoria mine, near Adelaide, as early as 1846, but did not pay the company. Partial gold working has been conducted at Echunga, &c., in southern hills. There are rich alluvial and quartz gold mines in Northern Territory, at from 100 to 150 miles south of Port Darwin. For the year 1884 the yield was £77,935. Of 1349 miners 1205 were Chinese. Gold is now worked at Waukaringa, 225 miles north of Adelaide. Copper, tin, and silver are found in Northern Territory. Among other minerals asbestos, roofing slates, and fine marbles may be named. Some forty years ago precious stones, especially garnets and sapphires, were gathered in the Barossa Hills. Carbonaceous material is found at the Coorong, &c., yielding 50 per cent. of oil. Lake Eyre has a rude coal. Kapunda marble quarry is a success. In 1885 there were 16,493 acres leased for minerals. The value of minerals exported in 1885 was £338,132.

Agriculture.— This is essentially an agricultural colony. In its first establishment, farming was intended as the main occupation. The land was cut up for sale into eighty-acre lots with the view of settling the people on arrival, and concentrating them, instead of having them scattered as in the neighbouring colonies, in which pastoral pursuits completely dwarfed the farming industry. This wise provision made the colony for years the supplier of breadstuffs to Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Auckland. As neighbours became wheat-producers, Adelaide merchants had to seek markets in Natal, Mauritius, the Cape, or even Europe. At all times the state has lent every assistance to agriculture. As the colony suffers more from drought than anything else, public reservoirs are constructed and artesian wells are sunk. Forest culture has especially attracted Government attention. Reforesting and the establishment of nurseries for the trees, fruits, and vegetables of other lands go hand in hand. Forest reserves already amount to 150,000 acres. Hundreds of thousands of trees are annually planted.

The land system, sound at the beginning, has been repeatedly amended, especially with a view to the advancement of pastoral interests. Instead of cash sales, as formerly, conditional purchases may be made, extending over a long period, subject to conditions of residence and cultivation. At the end of 1884 only ten million acres had been purchased. There were, however, 53,000,000 acres enclosed, chiefly for pasturage, and 2,785,490 under cultivation. The crop for March 1885 was as follows:—wheat, 1,942,653 acres; fallow, 450,536; hay, 308,429; artificial grasses, 23,217; barley, 15,697; lucerne, 8649; oats, 7264; orchard, 5825; potatoes, 5666; pease, 4601; vineyard, 4590. The culture indicates a warm and dry climate, different from New Zealand or the tropical coast of Queensland. The product of South Australian fields is so much smaller per acre than in any of the neighbouring colonies that only an open level country of cheap land, with effective machinery at moderate cost, could be managed at a profit. Going northward from Adelaide the country becomes too dry for roots, and then too precarious even for wheat. The county of Adelaide is very favourably placed for vineyards, oliveyards, and orchards. About half the olive trees and a third of the almond trees are there. Of 3,704,107 grape vines in the colony, Adelaide county had 2,158,468, and Light, in the neighbouring hills, had 860,356. There were in 1884 473,535 gallons of wine made. The commissioners lately reported that the light white wines kept sound and good, while full-bodied red wines continue to improve with age. The Water Conservation Department is of great service to agriculture. Tropical cultivation receives some attention already in Northern Territory. The Chinese raise rice crops, there being heavy rains near the coast. Daly river has excellent soil and climate for sugar and coffee.

The pastoral progress has been considerable, notwithstanding want of moisture. In 1885 there were 1528 leases over 214,916 square miles, besides 257 annual leases with 11,214 square miles. There were then 168,420 horses, 389,726 cattle, 163,807 pigs, 6,696,406 sheep (twenty sheep per head of population). Of these the settled counties had 151,058 horses, 179,206 cattle, and 4,995,394 sheep. In Northern Territory, with 136,000 cattle, there were in December 1885 6000 horses and 40,000 sheep, that country, excepting in the dry interior, being unfitted for wool-bearers. The total export of wool grown in South Australia had only the value of £1,671,775 in 1885. The prices obtained were a fourth less than ten years before. The rabbit pest is felt as seriously in pastoral as in agricultural operations. Kangaroos are far less troublesome to stockholders than in Queensland. Where water can be procured by dams, reservoirs, or wells stock can be kept, since, where the grass fails, cotton bush and various saline plants supply sufficient food. An artesian well lately was sunk 1220 feet. Wool is remarkably fine there. While a South Australia merino has 2720 serrations to an inch of wool, a Leicester sheep has but 1850.

Fauna.— South Australia is not separated from the neighbouring colonies by any natural boundaries; hence the fauna includes many animals which are also to be found in the land lying to the east and west. The northern half of the colony lies within the tropics, and possesses a tropical fauna, which is, however, practically identical with that of northern Queensland. In spite of its immense extent north and south, and a corresponding diversity in climate, the colony is poorer in animal life than its neighbours. It possesses thirty-five genera of mammals. These include both genera of the order Monotremata,— the Echidna, or spiny anteater, and the Ornithorhynchus, or duck-billed platypus, both of which are found also in eastern Australia and Tasmania. The other order of Mammalia associated with Australia, the Marsupialia, is well represented in South Australia. It contains seven genera of Macropodidae or kangaroos, including the wallaby and kangaroo rat, four genera of Phalangistidae, or opossums, and five species of Dasyuridae, or “native cats.” Two genera of this family are peculiar to the region—the Chaetocercus and the Antichinomys ; the latter is found in the interior. It is a mouse-like animal with large ears, and is remarkable for the elongation of its fore-arm and hind-foot and for the complete absence of the hallux. The Phascolomys, or wombat, one of the largest of the marsupials, is also found in South Australia, and the curious Myrmecobius, or anteater of Western Australia. This remarkable animal is about the size of a squirrel; it possesses fifty-two teeth (a greater number than any known quadruped), and, unlike the other members of its order, the female has no pouch, the young hanging from nipples concealed amongst the hair of her abdomen. The C haeropus, with peculiarly slender limbs and a pouch opening backwards, is found in the interior. The remaining Mammalia consist of the dingo, or native dog, and a few species of Muridae, the mouse family, and Cheiroptera, or bats. There are about 700 species of birds, including 60 species of parrots. Of the 9 families peculiar to the Australian region, 5 are well represented, including the Meliphagidae (honey-suckers), Cacatuidae (cockatoos), Platycercidae (broad-tailed and grass parroquets), Megapodidae (mound-makers) and Casuaridae (cassowaries). The last-named family is represented by the Dromaeus, or emu, which is hunted in some parts of the colony. Reptiles are fairly represented: there are fifteen species of poisonous snakes. The lizards are very peculiar; South and Western Australia contain twelve peculiar genera. No tailed Amphibia exist in the continent, but frogs and toads are plentiful.

Flora.— The plant species resemble those of the eastern colonies and Western Australia, but are more limited in variety. The colony, from its dryness, lacks a number known elsewhere. Enormous areas are almost destitute of forests or of timber trees. The Eucalyptus family, so valuable for timber and gum as well as for sanitary reasons, are fairly represented. Acacias are abundant, the bark of some being an article of commerce. Flinders range has much of the valuable sugar-gum, Eucalyptus Corynocalyx, which is being now preserved in forest reserves. Its timber is very hard and strong, not warping, resisting damp and ants. The head-flowered stringybark, Eux. capitellata, has a persistent bark. A sort of stringybark, Euc. tetrodonta, is found in Northern Territory. The gouty-stem tree (Adansonia) or monkey-bread of the north is a sort of baobab. About 500 northern plants are Indian. The Tamarindus indica occurs in Arnhem land, with native rice, rattans, and wild nutmeg. The cedar is of the Indian variety. Pines are numerous in the south, palms in the north; among the most beautiful is the Kentia acuminata. Banksias are very common in sandy districts. Flowering shrubs are common in the south. There are 130 known grasses in Northern Territory.

Fisheries.— Whaling was formerly an important industry about Encounter Bay, as sealing was in Kangaroo Island. The whales have migrated, and the seals are exterminated. On the northern side trepang or bêche-de-mer fishery has commenced, and pearl fisheries have been established. Of fish within colonial waters there are forty-two peculiar genera. The tropical north has similar fish to those of North Queensland, while those of southern bays resemble many of the species of Victoria, Tasmania, and New South Wales. There are the barracouta, bonito, bream, carp, catfish, rock cod and Murray cod, conger, crayfish, cuttle, dogfish, eel, flatfish, flathead, flounder, flying-fish, gadfish, grayling, gurnard, hake, John Dory, ray, salmon (so-called), schnapper, seahorse, shark, sole, squid, swordfish, whiting, &c. Though called by English names, the fish do not always correspond to those in Europe. The Murray cod is a noble freshwater fish.

Commerce.— There is little speculative trade, the shipping being employed in the conveyance of the exports of the colony amt the introduction of needful supplies. The imports during 1884 amounted to £5,749,353, of which £2,983,296 came from the United Kingdom, £997,785 from New...

The land is irrigated and well-drained by numerous rivers, the largest of which is the Santee, formed by the Saluda, Congaree, Catawba, and Wateree, uniting at the centre of the State. The other rivers of any size are the Waccamaw, Lynch’s, Great and Little Peedee, forming the Peedee, Black, Wando, Ashley, Cooper, Edisto, Combahee, Ashepoo, Coosaw, Port Royal, and Broad (on the coast), this last being more of a bay. The sea-coast is fringed by numerous islands, and indented by bays and inlets,— Winyaw and Bull’s Bays, Charleston Harbour, Stono Inlet, North and South Edisto Inlets, St Helena Sound, and Port Royal,—the last one of the finest harbours in the world, as its name, said to have been given on this account by the early discoverers and explorers, would imply. The entire coast south of Winyaw is composed of a network of creeks and sounds, so that, for small craft, navigation inland may be had from this point to the mouth of the Savannah on the extreme south-west. Most of the rivers rising in the mountains are navigable nearly to the foot-slope. Here numerous rapids and waterfalls afford excellent mill-power. Canals throughout the State are not numerous, the few formerly in use having been abandoned in favour of the railroads. The Santee Canal, connecting that river with the headwaters of the Cooper, 22 miles in length, has given place to the North-Eastern Railway.

The climate of South Carolina is mild and genial, snow falling in the mountains but rarely in the middle sections, and seldom or never along the coast. The sea islands generally, as well as the pine barrens, are healthy, furnishing the planter with a summer home and safe retreat from the malaria of the rice lands. These regions were formerly innocuous to the whites, as they still are to the negroes, but subsequent clearance and cultivation have rendered them fatal in summer. The midlands are considered healthy in all parts except here and there along the creeks, while the mountain region is unexceptionable.

The coast of South Carolina, like places in the same latitude, is subject to violent storms, tornadoes, and cyclones, which make their annual visits on or about the autumnal equinox, doing much damage. Till quite recently the district has never been seriously troubled with earthquakes. Slight tremors have indeed been felt and recorded since 1754, without, however, causing serious injury. But on the night of the 31st August 1886 Charleston was visited by an earthquake which was followed by other shocks and tremors, which continued night and day at intervals with greater or less violence, as the following list shows :—

August 27... 1 shock, slight.

August 28... 1 shock, slight.

August 31.. .5 shocks, destructive.

Sept. 1...3 shocks, severe.

Sept. 2...3 shocks, severe.

Sept. 3...2 shocks, severe.

Sept. 4...2 shocks, slight.

Sept. 5...1 shock, moderate. Sept. 7...2 shocks, slight.

Sept. 8...1 shock, slight.

Sept. 10...1 shock, slight.

Sept. 12..,1 shock, slight.

Sept. 15...2 shocks, moderate. Sept. 21... 1 shock, severe.

Sept. 22...1 shock, moderate,local Sept. 27... 1 shock, severe.

Sept. 28... 1 shock, moderate. Sept. 30... 1 shock, slight.

The main shock was very destructive to property, while about forty lives were lost, and many more were injured. Crevices several yards in length and varying from one to four inches in width appeared, and in some places in the suburbs of the city fissures of much larger proportions threw up water to the height of several feet. There was no warning given except that in the small town of Summerville, about 22 miles to the north, considerable disturbance was caused by thuds and tremors with detonations on the 27th and 28th, felt on the latter date to some extent in Charleston. The violence of these shocks was confined almost exclusively to this State, though they were felt in a slighter degree in Georgia and North Carolina.

The soil in the low country is remarkably fertile, the river swamps and reclaimed marshes being admirably adapted to the cultivation of rice, while the sandy loam of the sea islands and surrounding main produces the finest long staple, black seed, or sea island cotton of silky fibre. As we recede from the salt the staple becomes shorter and the plant has a less luxuriant growth. The rice produced here, noted abroad as Carolina rice, is considered first in the markets of the world. The State was the first to introduce rice culture in America, the seed having been brought in 1693 by a vessel from Madagascar. Abundant crops are raised of wheat, rye, maize, oats, barley, buckwheat, pease, beans, sugar, tobacco, indigo, sorghum, broom-corn, sunflower, guinea-corn, sweet and Irish potatoes, hemp, flax, and hops. Numerous orchards, all over the State, furnish quantities of apples, pears, quinces, plums, peaches, nectarines, apricots, cherries, and along the coast figs, oranges, lemons, olives, and pomegranates. The raspberry, blackberry, mulberry, and whortleberry are produced. The strawberry is extensively cultivated along the coast, and shipped in immense quantities to the northern markets. Of nuts, the walnut, pecan, chestnut, hickory, shell-bark, hazel nut, and chinquapin may be mentioned. The grape grows wild in many portions of the State, and in great varieties, which, when cultivated, yield a delicious wine. In certain sections hundreds of acres are devoted to the culture. The gardens and farms produce in abundance turnips, beets, parsnips, carrots, artichokes, mustard, benne, rhubarb, arrowroot, water and musk melons, cucumbers, cabbages, kale, lettuce, cayenne pepper, squashes, okra, pumpkins, onions, leeks, beans, radishes, celery, green pease, and tomatoes,— the last two from early spring to mid-winter. The jasmine, Cherokee rose or nondescript, wild honeysuckle, and sweet-brier perfume the woods; the dog-wood and fringe tree abound in the forest; and garden flowers in the cities, especially Charleston, Columbia, and Beaufort, are the admiration of strangers. Conspicuous among these are the Camellia japonica of all varieties and shades, azalea in every hue, roses of numberless descriptions, hyacinth, snowdrop, violet, dahlia, tulip, verbena, sweet olive, and heliotrope. Valuable and almost inexhaustible forests extend over the greater part of the State, the long leaf or yellow pine, confined chiefly to the low country, covering 10,000,000 acres, and furnishing immense quantities of timber, tar, pitch, turpentine, and rosin. Here and elsewhere are found the magnolia, sweet and black gum, white, water, red, and live oak, black walnut, elm, hickory, maple, sycamore, ash, cypress, chestnut, beech, locust, persimmon, dogwood, poplar. The palmetto is peculiar to the coast.

The forests abound in deer, wild turkeys, foxes, wild cats, raccoons, opossums, rabbits, and squirrels; and along the watercourses are found the musk otter, &c. Among the birds are pigeons, doves, partridges, woodcock, snipe, immense flocks of wild ducks, including the English or canvas-back, teal, blackhead, &c. Freshwater fish of every variety are taken in all the streams in the interior, and the bays and inlets furnish whiting, mackerel, bass, flounder, sheephead, shad, mullet, blackfish, sturgeon, terrapin, turtle, shrimps, crabs, and oysters. Quantities of salmon and carp have been furnished by the fish commissioners for stocking the waters.

Minerals are liberally diffused over the State. Gold is found in Lancaster, York, Union, Spartanburg, Greenville, Pickens, and Abbeville counties; copper in York, Spartanburg, and Pickens; lead in the last; iron of a superior quality in Union, Spartanburg, Greenville, and Pickens; manganese in Lancaster, York, Chester, Union, Spartanburg, Greenville, Pickens, Anderson, Abbeville, and Edgefield; bismuth in Chesterfield and Lancaster; plumbago in Spartanburg; soapstone in Fairfield, Chester, York, Spartanburg, Laurens, Greenville, Pickens, Abbeville, and Edgefield; coal in Chesterfield and Marlboro. Limestone abounds in nearly all the upper counties, but chiefly in Laurens and Spartanburg. The finest blue and grey granite is found in the middle and upper sections; sandstone, burrstone, and flagstone in Edgefield, Pickens, York, and Fairfield. Pottery and porcelain clay, quartz, and sand for glass exist in many places. Tuomey states that “the aluminous formations that occur in immense beds of the finest porcelain clay are often exposed by the denuding effects of water and lie in rich strata upon the very surface, ready to the hand of tho manufacturer. Between Aiken and Graniteville the beds are in many eases 60 feet thick, while those in the Savannah river near Hamburg are from 10 to 15 feet and of unsurpassed purity.” The Aiken council committee report in this vicinity immense beds of different kinds of clay, from the purest and whitest kaolin to the dark-coloured mud of which bricks are made, sands of all hues, some as fine as flour, others with large coarse crystals, siliceous earths of many kinds, ferruginous sandstones, conglomerate shell, burrstone, mica, feldspar, and ochres of different colours. But a short distance off a deposit of magnesia is found, and potash can readily be made in the surrounding forests. Experts have pronounced the sands to be admirably adapted for making glass and crystal, and the quality of the kaolin is admitted to be equal, if not superior, to that of which Staffordshire ware is made. It is doubtful if the combination of the ingredients of glass and earthenware can be found in such immediate proximity anywhere else. Mineral springs exist in several of the upper counties.

Railroads are on the increase. The South Carolina Railway, between Charleston and Augusta, Ga., was, at the time of its completion, the longest continuous railroad in the world.

Manufactures are growing in importance; chief among them are cotton yarn and cloth, flour, lumber, turpentine, and fertilizers. The capacity of twenty-nine mills now in operation is estimated at 14,821,166 lb of yarn, 79,442,327 yards of cloth, and the value of product $9,097,464. In 1880 there were 82,324 spindles and 1676 looms; in 1884 195,112 spindles and 3652 looms. The number of lumber mills at work is 729, employing 5894 hands and a capital of $2,920,870. The value of their annual production is $5,592,565. Of turpentine stills there are 291, with 6991 hands and a capital of $1,454,800, with an annual production to the value of $2,912,271. These figures show an increase of 100 per cent. in less than four years. The fertilizers are valued at $3,346,400, and the miscellaneous manufactures at $2,114,680. The whole value of manufactured products was in 1860 $8,615,195; in 1870, $9,858,981; in 1880, $16,738,008; in 1884, $32,324,404. South Carolina phosphates are of recent date, but their importance may be shown by stating that they pay yearly, by direct taxation, an amount for royalty which is 20 per cent. of the whole income of the State. The value of this rock was first pointed out by Mr Jonathan Lucas, a planter, who afterwards materially assisted in developing its usefulness. The first company, the Charleston South Carolina Mining and Manufacturing Company, was formed in 1867. There are now fourteen land and eleven river mining companies with capital ranging from $10,000 to $200,000. In addition to these there are a number of individuals who are licensed by the State to mine in the navigable streams, employing an estimated capital of about $50,000. The total amount of phosphate rock mined and shipped in 1868-70 was 20,000 tons; in 1871, 50,000 tons; in 1875, 115,000 tons; in 1880,190,000 tons; and in 1883, 355,000 tons,—the total since 1868 being 2,290,000 tons. Of this amount 1,078,070 tons were river and 1,211,830 land rock. The capital invested in the former is $525,000, and 649 hands are employed (wages $259,300), with an annual production of $907,170; in the latter the corresponding figures are—capital $1,980,000, hands 1286, wages $363,560, production $1,283,830.

The six gold-mining counties report eleven mines in operation, employing 600 hands, with a capital of $440,000 and an annual production of $90,000. The same counties report eighteen gold mines or gold-bearing areas not now worked; one of the mines has a capital of $40,000. Ten counties report quarries or kaolin beds. Worked and unworked, there are twenty-five granite quarries, five kaolin beds, and one soapstone quarry. There are also in the State large unworked deposits of mica, pyrites, corundum, and marl, with some silver. The quarries and kaolin works, with a capital of $96,350, have an annual production of $220,000.

The upland cotton crop of 1883 was 468,227 bales of 400 lb. The corn area was 1,359,593 acres, and the production 10,876,744 bushels. 321,958 acres in oats yielded a crop of 4,187,082 bushels. Of wheat (182,215 acres) the yield was 1,388,731 bushels. The rice crop of 1883-84 was 33,600 tierces. The sea-island cotton crop was 9500 bags. This last, as well as the small grain and subsidiary crops, has suffered a decline in the last few years of 25 to 35 per cent.

The proportions of white and coloured labour in the State are about 30 per cent. and 70 per cent. respectively. The rate of wages paid is from $8 to $9 a month for men and $6 for women, with board. About 23 per cent. of white women and children work on the farms, and about 61 per cent. of the coloured. The systems used are—the contract, in which services rendered are paid by giving the labourer the use of the land and house, or where the wages are paid monthly, or a portion monthly and the remainder at the end of the year; and the tenant system, in which the labourer rents the land, and from the crop pays the landlord the rent and for the use of the animals. Land varies in price from 50 cents for pine barren to $100 for choice farming land.

Horses and mules are raised at very little cost. Ordinary scrub cattle are seldom housed, roaming the forests at will, except when herded for branding or for driving to market. Sheep thrive away from the salt, and are profitable in the mountains. Hogs, not improved breeds, like cattle, have the liberty of the woods, and are taken with dogs when needed. According to estimates of improved stock, there are 792 Jerseys, 177 Ayrshires, 50 Devons, 33 Holsteins, 1 Guernsey, besides a number of Shorthorns and Brahmins. Merino, South Down, Oxford Down, and Broad-Tail sheep are raised in many parts of the State, with Essex and Berkshire hogs.

Free schools trace their origin as far back as 1710. A system of free schools was inaugurated in 1811. The present public-school system was established in 1868. It provides free instruction to pupils of both races, in primary and intermediate grades. Their management is under the direction of the State board of examiners, consisting of the State superintendent of education, and four other persons appointed by the governor. In each county the school commissioner is elected by the people for two years. The schools are supported entirely by taxation. There are 3562 public schools in the State. The number of persons in the State between the ages of six and sixteen is 281,664, of whom 51,440 are white males, 49,749 white females, 90,897 coloured males, 89,578 coloured females. The number of pupils enrolled is 178,023 (41,819 white males, 36,639 females, 48,418 coloured males, 51,147 females). The number of male white teachers employed is 1137, females 1205; coloured males 982, females 449,— making a total of 3773. There are 3562 public schoolhouses, valued at $405,097.31. Institutions for higher education, supported by the State, are the South Carolina College and South Carolina Military Academy for white males, and the Claflin College for coloured persons of both sexes. There is an institution for the education of the deaf, dumb, and blind. There are, besides, numerous private schools and colleges.

Churches of all denominations multiplied in the State during the colonial period, and subsequently Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Independents, Baptists, and French Protestants established congregations in Charleston just after 1680. Methodists and Romanists came a century later, Jews in 1756, German Lutherans in 1759. The coloured people are for the most part Methodists, some being Baptists and Presbyterians, a few Episcopalians.

Charleston (q.v.) is the largest city of the State. Columbia (q.v.), the capital, has (1886) a population of 20,000, while that of Charleston is 60,000. Greenville, in the north-west portion of the State, is a growing railway centre and manufacturing city, with a population of 10,000. Georgetown and Beaufort on the coast do a good shipping business in lumber and other exports. Spartanburg and Aiken are important places, the former as a railway centre, the latter as a health resort for invalid strangers in winter, when the population is more than doubled. Other towns are Newberry, Orangeburg, Florence, Camden, Sumter, Graniteville, Chester, Anderson, Abbeville, Winnsboro, Yorkville, Union, Cheraw, Walhalla, Piedmont, Port Royal, Marion, Darlington, Lancaster.

The executive department consists of a governor, lieutenant-governor, who is ex officio president of the senate, comptrollergeneral, treasurer, secretary of state, attorney-general, and a superintendent of education; these are elected by the people, to serve two years. The legislative department embraces a senate and a house of representatives, which together are called the general assembly. The former is composed of thirty-seven members, elected for four years, one from each county, except Charleston, which sends two. The house of representatives consists of 124 members, elected for two years. The judicial department consists of a supreme court and of circuit, probate, and justices’ courts. The supreme and circuit court judges are elected by the general assembly,—the former for six years, the latter for four. The probate judges for each county are elected by the people, and the justices of the peace are appointed by the governor.

The first attempt to settle Carolina was in 1562, when Admiral Coligny obtained from Charles IX. of France permission to plant a colony of Protestants on the coast of Florida. An expedition was fitted out at the expense of the crown, and placed under the command of Jean Ribault. Fear of the Spaniards perhaps induced them to change their plans, aud, entering Port Royal, they landed on Lemon Island, where they erected a pillar, and afterwards a fort, which they named, in honour of the king, Arx Carolina. Leaving a sufficient number to garrison the fort, Ribault returned to France. Two years later a second expedition under Laudonnière, one of Ribault’s men, was fitted out, but on landing at Port Royal it found no traces of the former. This colony likewise met with disaster, being massacred by the Spaniards from Florida. It was not until a century later that a permanent settlement was made by the English, who, after the Restoration, began to recognize their claim to a large territory in the southern district of North America. In 1662 a grant was obtained from Charles II., and in 1667 an expedition sailed under command of Capt. William Sayle. They reached Port Royal, where they made a settlement, but a few years after removed to the west bank of the Ashley, and built a town which they called, after the English monarch, Charlestown. Subsequently they again removed to Oyster Point, the present site of Charleston. (W. SI. )...

The importance of the port dates from the Norman Conquest, and was originally due to its relation to Winchester. It had a considerable trade in wine as early as 1152, and from Queen Mary it obtained a monopoly in the importation of sweet wines from the Grecian islands. With Venice and Italy it had a large trade as early as the 14th century, and in the subsequent century it had a connexion with Newfoundland, while its Channel trade and its shipbuilding were also of importance. About the end of the 16th century its trade had, however, begun to decline, and the visitation of the plague in 1665 tended still further to aid its retrogression. Some improvement took place in its prospects by the creation of a Pier and Harbour Commission in 1803, and the erection of the Royal Victoria pier in 1831 was a further step towards prosperity, but its modern trade really dates from the opening up of railway communication with London in 1840. It possesses one of the finest natural harbours and has the advantage of a double tide, a second high tide occurring two hours after the first. While largely dependent for its import trade on its connexion with London and its easy communication with France, it has become an outlet for the manufactures of the midland and northern towns. Its great tidal dock, completed in 1842 at a cost of £140,000, has an area of 16 acres with a depth of 18 feet at low water, and the inner dock, completed in 1851, an area of 10 acres and a depth of 28 feet. Two other docks embracing an area of 50 acres are being constructed. There are also four dry docks, capable of receiving vessels of the largest tonnage at all tides. Within recent years the port has lost the overland trade between London and India by the removal to London of the headquarters of the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company. At present it is the headquarters of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company for the West Indies and the Pacific (via Panama) and for Brazil and the River Plate, the Union Line for the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, and East Africa, and the London and South Western Railway Company’s steamers to the French coast. Steamers also sail regularly for Ireland and various ports on the west coast of England; and the steamers of the North German Lloyd Company touch at the port on the way to and from New York, and also to and from Asiatic and Australian ports. The total number of vessels that entered the port in 1876 was 7840 of 1,201,301 tons, of which 3780 with a tonnage of 201,434 were sailing vessels, and 4060 with a tonnage of 999,867 were steamers. The number that cleared in the same year was 8047 of 1,174,365 tons, of which 3994 (196,064 tons) were sailing vessels, and 4053 (978,301 tons) were steamers. In 18S5 the number of vessels that entered the port was 9768 of 1,539,357 tons, of which 3456 (175,900 tons) were sailing vessels, and 6312 (1,363,457 tons) were steamers. . Tho number that cleared in the same year was 9641 of 1,523,759 tons, of which 3350 (182,688 tons) were sailing vessels, and 6291 (1,341,071 tons) were steamers. Since 1845 the trade has increased more than tenfold, although within recent years the port has suffered from the prevailing dulness. The total value of imports and exports in 1845 was £1,475,000; in 1880 the value of the imports was £9,205,183 and in 1884 it was £7,544,354; for these last years the value of the exports of United Kingdom produce was £9,306,326 and £6,909,072; while the value of the exports of foreign and colonial produce and manufactures in 1882 was £1,589,652 and in 1884 £1,150,954. Among the principal imports are cocoa, coffee, corn (including maize), apples, provisions (especially butter, eggs, and potatoes from France and the Channel

Isles), rum and brandy, sugar, wine, wool, and rags. Among the principal exports of the produce of the United Kingdom are apparel, cotton goods, leather, linen goods, machinery, copper and iron goods, woollen and worsted goods. The number of ships built at the port in 1885 was 19, of 17,875 tons burden.

The Roman station of Clausentum was situated at Bitterne on the opposite side of the Itchen, where extensive Roman remains have been found. The present town was founded by the West Saxons, probably soon after their landing under Cerdic and Cynric on the shores of Southampton Water in 495. The name Hantun-scire (Hamptonshire) occurs in the Saxon Chronicle under date 755, and Hamtun is first mentioned separately in 837. The prefix “South” was probably added after the annexation of Wessex to Mercia in 920, to distinguish it from the Hampton in Mercia afterwards called. Northampton. The town was frequently ravaged by the Danes in the 9th and 10th centuries. Canute, after his establishment on the throne, made it his occasional residence, and Southampton beach is reputed to have been the scene of his rebuke to the flattery of his courtiers, by the demonstration of his powerlessness to control the waves. Southampton is mentioned in Domesday as Hantune. It possessed a mint as early as 925. It was frequently visited by successive monarchs from the time of Henry I. In 1338 it repulsed an attack of the French and Genoese. In 1415 it was the rendezvous of the army of Henry V. for France, and during his stay in the town he detected the conspiracy against him of the earl of Cambridge, Lord Scrope, and Sir Thomas Grey, who were executed outside the Bargate. In 1512 the marquis of Dorset embarked from the port with 10,000 men to the aid of Ferdinand of Spain against France, and in 1522 the earl of Surrey set out from it with a large fleet to escort Charles V. Queen Elizabeth held a court at Southampton in 1569. On account of the outbreak of the plague in London in 1625 the council was transferred by the king to Southampton, where on the 7th September a treaty was signed with the United Provinces. The town received its first charter from Henry II., and a charter of incorporation from Henry VI. in 1445 under the style of “mayor, bailiff, and burgesses.” This charter was somewhat modified by that granted by Charles I. which remained the governing charter till the passing of the Municipal Act. The corporation act as the urban sanitary authority. The town first returned members to parliament in 1295. Among eminent persons connected with Southampton are Dibdin the song writer, Bishop Peacocke, Thomas Fuller, and Dr Watts.

See History of Southampton, by J. Sylvester Davies, 1883.