The general position of Rodbertus was “social, monarchical, and national.” With his entire soul he held the purely economic part of the creed of the German social-democratic party, but he did not agree with their methods, and had no liking for the productive associations with state help of Lassalle. He regarded a socialistic republic as a possible thing, but he cordially accepted the monarchic institution in his own country and hoped that a German emperor might undertake the rôle of a social emperor. He was also a true patriot and was proud and hopeful of the career that lay before the regenerated empire of Germany. The basis of the economic teaching of Rodbertus is the principle laid down by Adam Smith and Ricardo and insisted on by all the later socialists, that labour is the source and measure of value. In connexion with this he developed the position that rent, profit, and wages are all parts of a national income produced by the united organic labour of the workers of the community. Consequently there can be no talk of the wages of labour being paid out of capital; wages is only that part of the national income which is received by the workmen, of a national income which they have themselves entirely produced. The wages fund theory is thus summarily disposed of. But the most important result of the theory is his position that the possession of land and capital enables the landholders and capitalists to compel the workmen to divide the product of their labour with those nonworking classes, and in such a proportion that the workers only obtain as much as can support them in life. Thus the iron law of wages is established. Hence also Rodbertus deduces his theory of commercial crises and of pauperism, and in the following way. In spite of the increasing productivity of labour, the workers obtain in general only sufficient to support their class, and therefore a smaller relative share of the national income. But the producers form also the large mass of consumers, and, with the decline of their relative share in the national income, must decline the relative purchasing power of this large class of the people. The growing production is not met by a correspondingly growing consumption; expansion is succeeded by contraction of production, by a scarcity of employment, and a further decline in purchasing power on the part of the workers. Thus we have a commercial crisis bringing with it pauperism as a necessary result. In the meantime the purchasing power of the non-producing capitalists and landholders continues relatively to increase; but, as they have already had enough to buy all the comforts of life, they spend the more in the purchase of luxuries, the production of which increases.

A fundamental part of the teaching of Rodbertus is his theory of social development. He recognized three stages in the economic progress of mankind: (1) the ancient heathen period in which property in human beings was the rule; (2) the period of private property in land and capital; (3) the period, still remote, of property as dependent on service or desert. The goal of the human race is to be one society organized on a communistic basis; only in that way can the principle that every man be rewarded according to his work be realized. In this communistic or socialistic state of the future land and capital will be national property, and the entire national production will be under national control; and means will be taken so to estimate the labour of each citizen that he shall be rewarded according to its precise amount. An immense staff of state officials will be required for this function. As we have already said, Rodbertus believed that this stage of social development is yet far distant; he thought that five centuries will need to pass away before the ethical force of the people can be equal to it.

From temperament, culture, and social position Rodbertus was averse to agitation as a means of hastening the new era; and, in the measures which he recommends for making the transition towards it he showed a scrupulous regard for the existing interests of the capitalists and landholders. He proposed that those two classes should be left in full possession of their present share of the national income, but that the workers should reap the benefit of the increasing production. To secure them this increment of production he proposed that the state should fix a “normal working day” for the various trades, a normal day’s work, and a legal wage, the amount of which should be revised periodically, and raised according to the increase of production, the better workman receiving a better wage. By measures such as these carried out by the state in order to correct the evils of competition would Rodbertus seek to make the transition into the socialistic era.

The economic work of Rodbertus is therefore an attempt made in a temperate and scientific spirit to elucidate the evil tendencies inherent in the competitive system, especially as exemplified in the operation of the iron law of wages. The remedy he proposes is a state management of production and distribution, which shall extend more and more, till we arrive at a complete and universal socialism,—and all based on the principle that as labour is the source of value so to the labourer should all wealth belong. It is therefore an attempt to place socialism on a scientific basis; and he is certainly entitled to be regarded as one of the founders of “scientific socialism” (see Socialism).

The following are the most important works of Rodbertus :— Zur Erkenntniss unserer staatswirthschaftliehen Zustände (1842); Sociale Briefe an von Kirchmann (1850); Creditnoth des Grundbesitzes (2d ed., 1876); “Der Normal-Arbeitstag,” in Tiib. Zeitschrift (1878); letters to A. wagner, &C., Tüb. Zeitschrift (1878-79); Letters to Rudolf Meyer (1882). within recent years Rodbertus has received great attention in Germany, especially from Adolf Wagner (Tiib. Zeitschrift, 1878); see also Kozak’s work on Rodbertus (1S82), and an excellent monograph by G. Adler (Leipsic, 1884).

Rodez, called Segodunum under the Gauls and Ruthena under the Romans, was the capital of a tribe allied to the Arvernians. In the 4th century it adopted the Christian faith and St Amans, its first bishop, was elected in 401. During the Middle Ages contests were rife between the bishops in the “city” and the counts in the “bourg.” The Albigenses were defeated near Rodez in 1210. The countship of Rodez depended in succession on the count of Toulouse, on the king of France, and from the close of the 13th century on the count of Armagnac. From 1360 to 1368 the English held the town. After the confiscation of the estates of the Armagnacs in 1473 it passed to the dukes of Alençon and then to the D’Albrets. Henry IV. finally annexed it to the crown of France. Neither the Protestants nor the Leaguers any more than in earlier days the Albigenses were able to make themselves masters of Rodez.

In 1764 Rodney was created a baronet by patent of 21st January, and the same year he married Henrietta, daughter of John Clies of Lisbon. From 1765 to 1770 he was governor of Greenwich Hospital, and on the dissolution of parliament in 1768 he successfully contested Northampton at a ruinous cost. When appointed commander-in-chief of the Jamaica station in 1771 he lost his Greenwich post, but a few months later received the office of rear-admiral of Great Britain. Till 1774 he held the Jamaica com mand, and during a period of quiet was active in improving the naval yards on his station. Sir George struck his flag with a feeling of disappointment at not obtaining the governorship of Jamaica, and was shortly after forced to settle in Paris. Election expenses and losses at play in fashionable circles had shattered his fortune and now broke up his family till the eve of war with France. In February 1778, having just been promoted admiral of the White, he used every possible exertion to obtain a command from the Admiralty, to free himself from his money difficulties. By May he had, through the splendid generosity of his Parisian friend Maréchal Biron, effected the latter task, and accordingly he returned to London with his children. Sir George was enabled to remit at once to his benefactor the full loan, and it is worthy of record that the English Government in later years awarded pensions to the maréchal’s daughters in recognition of their father’s chivalrous act. That an attempt was made by the French ministry during the war crisis to seduce Rodney into accepting high rank in the French navy is undeniable from the evidence we possess, but the details of the common version must be accepted with reserve, excepting the undoubted instant rejection of the offer. To the English cabinet the honour of both Rodney and Biron remained untarnished, if we may judge of the former by his letters, public and private, and of the latter by the pension awarded to his relatives.

Sir George was appointed once more commander-in-chief of the Leeward Islands, 1st October 1779, but did not sail till 29th December. He captured a Spanish convoy bound to Cadiz on 8th January 1780, and eight days later defeated the Spanish admiral Don Juan de Langara off Cape St Vincent, taking or destroying seven ships. On 17th April an action, which, owing to the carelessness of some of Rodney’s captains, was indecisive, was fought off Martinique with the French admiral Guichen. Rodney, acting under orders, captured the valuable entrepot of St Eustatius, and by his strong measures for stopping illegal and contraband trade evoked an attempt at censure on the part of his political opponents. After a few months in England, recruiting his health and defending himself in parliament, Sir George returned to his command in February 1782, and a running engagement with the French fleet on 9th April led up to his crowning victory off Dominica, when on 12th April with thirty-five sail of the line he defeated Comte de Grasse, who had thirty-three sail. The French inferiority in numbers was more than counterbalanced by the greater size and superior sailing qualities of their ships, yet five were taken and one sunk, after eleven hours’ fighting. This important battle saved Jamaica and ruined French naval prestige, while it enabled Rodney to write— “Within two little years I have taken two Spanish, one French, and one Dutch admirals.” A long and wearisome controversy exists as to the originator of the manoeuvre of “breaking the line” in this battle, but the merits of the victory have never seriously been affected by any difference of opinion on the question. A shift of wind broke the French line of battle, and advantage was taken of this by the English ships in two places.

Rodney arrived home in August to receive unbounded honour from his country. He had already been created Baron Rodney of Rodney Stoke, Somerset, by patent of 19th June 1782, and the House of Commons had voted him a pension of £2000 a year. From this time he led a quiet country life till his death, which occurred on 24th May 1792, in London, while on a visit to his son. Next to Nelson we may fairly place Rodney, not only because of his well-merited successes, but for masterly decision and confident boldness in grappling with fleets of the three chief maritime states of Europe while in the plenitude of their power. He fought his equals in naval science, but conquered by superior practical skill.

See General Mundy, Life and Correspondence of Admiral Lord Rodney, 2 vols., 1830; Rodney letters in 9th Report of Hist. MSS. Com., pt. iii.; “Memoirs” in Naval Chronicle i. 353-393; and Charnock, Biographia Navalis v. 204-228. Lord Rodney published in his lifetime (probably 1789) Letters to His Majesty's Ministers, dee., relative to St Eustatùts, <kc., of which there is a copy in the British Museum. Most of these letters are printed in Mundy’s Life, vol. ιi., though with many variant readings.

Along the north and west coast there are on the reef a number of islands of volcanic origin; those on the southeast are all of coralline limestone or sand. There are only two passages through the reef available for large vessels, —these leading respectively to Port Mathurin and to Port South-East. Rodriguez is comparatively arid; and the streams are as short-lived for the most part as they are beautiful. The climate is like that of Mauritius, but more subject to hurricanes during the north-west monsoon (November to April).

About 1845 the population of Rodriguez was about 250 persons. The original nucleus consisted of slaves from Mauritius, and recruits arrived from Madagascar and the African continent. By 1871 they had increased to 1108 and by 1881 to 1436. The island is governed by a civil commissioner, who is also a police magistrate. Capitalists from Mauritius are beginning to pay attention to the natural advantages of the island. A carriage road has been constructed from Mathurin to Gabriel, the only other village, where the Roman Catholic priests have their chapel and residence.

When originally discovered and down into the 17th century Rodriguez was clothed with fine timber trees; but goats, cattle, and bush-fires have combined to destroy the great bulk of the old vegetation, and the indigenous plants have in many cases been ousted by intrusive foreigners. When the island was in French possession many settlers cultivated large estates, and fortunes were realized; but with the liberation of the slaves the area of cultivation decreased, and it is now of very limited extent. The staple crop is the sweet potato; and manioc, maize, millet, and rice grow well, but are not much cultivated. Wheat is seldom seen, mainly because of the parakeets and the Java sparrows. Beans (Fhaseolus lunatus'), lentils, gram (C⅛cer «rieiinwn),dholl (Cajaηus indicus), and ground-nuts are all grown to a certain extent in spite of the ravages of the rats (Balfour). Mangoes, bananas, guavas, pine-apples, custard-apples, and especially oranges, citrons, and limes, are the fruits that flourish best. Of the timber trees the most common are Elaeoden-dron orientale, much used in carpentry and for pirogues, and Latania Verschaffelti (Leguat’s plantane). At least two species of screw-pine {Paηdanus heteroearpus, Balf. fil. and Ρ. teηuifolius) occur freely throughout the island. The total number of known species, according to Professor I. B. Balfour, is 470, belonging to 8δ families and 293 genera; and of these 297 are phanerogamous and 173 cryptogamous. The families represented by the greatest number of species are Gramineae {21 indigenous, 6 introduced), Leguminosae (14 ind., 15 intr.), Convolvulaeeae (11 ind., 4 intr.), Malveoeeae (9 ind.), Rubiaceae (8 ind.), Cyperaceae (8 ind.), Euphorbiaceae (8 ind.), Liliaeeae (6 ind. ), Compositae (5 ind., 6 intr. ). Μathurina pcndulifiora ( Tur-neraceae} is interesting, as its nearest congener is in Central America, and the family has not hitherto been found in the Mascarenes. Of 33 species of mosses 17 are peculiar. Variability of species and heterophylly are characteristic of the flora to quite an unusual degree. To the naturalist Rodriguez is as interesting as it is to the botanist. At present the only indigenous mammal is a species of fruit-eating bat (Pteropus rodericensis'), and the introduced species are such familiar creatures as the pig, rabbit, rat, mouse, &c.; but down to a recent period the island was the home of a very large land-tortoise ( Testudo Vοsmaeri or rodericensis), and its limestone caves have yielded a large number of skeletons of the dodo-like solitaire Hezophaps solitaries), which still built its mound-like nest in the island in the close of the 17th century, but is now extinct (see vol. iii. p. 732). Of indigenous birds 13 species have been registered. The guinea-fowl (introduced) has become exceedingly abundant, partly owing to a protective game-law; and a francolin {F. ponticerianus), popularly a “partridge,” is also common. The marine fish-fauna does not differ from that of Mauritius, and the freshwater species, with the exception of Mugil rodericensis and Myxus caecuticus, are common to all the Mascarenes. Thirty-five species of crustaceans are known. The insects (probably very imperfectly registered) comprise 60 species of Coleoptera, 15 Hymxno-ρtera, 21 Lepidoptera, 15 Orthoptera, and 20 Hemiptera. Forty-nine species of coral have been collected, showing a close affinity to those of Mauritius, Madagascar, and the Seychelles.

Rodriguez or Diego Ruy’s Island was discovered by the Portuguese in 1645. In 1690 Duquesne prevailed on the Dutch Government to send a body of French refugees to the Island of Bourbon, at that time, he believed, abandoned by the French authorities. As the refugees, however, found the French in possession they proceeded to Rodriguez, and there eight of their number were landed on 30th April 1691 with a promise that they should be visited by their compatriots within two years. The two years were spent without misadventure, but, instead of waiting for the arrival of their friends, the seven colonists (for one had meanwhile died) rashly left the island on 8th May 1693 and made their way to Mauritius, where they were treated with great cruelty by the governor. The account of the enterprise left us by Francis Leguat— Voyages et Aventures (London, 1708), or, as it is called in the English translation, A New Voyage to the East Indies (London, 1708)—is a most garrulous and amusing narrative, and was for a long time almost the only source of information about Rodriguez. His description of the solitaire is of course unique.

See Charles Grant, Hist, of Mauritius and the Neighbouring Islands, 1801; Higgin, in Jour. KG. Soc., London, 1849; the Reports of the results of the Transit of Venus Expedition, 1874-75, published as an extra volume of The Philosophical Transact ions (clxviii.), London 1879 (Botany, by I. B. Balfour; Petrology, by N. S. Maskelyne, &c.); Behm, in Peterrnann's Mittheilungen, 1880; Colonial Office List, 1884, 1885.