New Bedford (Acushnet of the Indians) was settled by Quakers in 1664, but it did not receive its present name till about 1765. Previous to 1787 it formed part of the “town” of Dartmouth. The city charter dates from 1847. In 1778, in revenge for the use of its harbour as a rendezvous of privateers who had been driven from other ports, the shipping and wharves of New Bedford were burned by the British. Not many of the privateers, however, belonged to the town, most of the inhabitants at that time being Quakers.

NEW BRITAIN (Birara) and NEW IRELAND, two Polynesian islands, about 340 miles by 23, and 240 by 22 respectively, are separated from the south-east extremity of New Guinea by a strait, first ascertained to be such by Dampier, 52 miles wide (see Plate VI.). They form together a sort of horse-shoe, divided in the middle by St George’s Channel, some 20 miles wide, which in 1878 was half choked, temporarily, by pumice from a neighbouring volcano. In this channel lies the Duke of York group, fourteen small, well-wooded, fertile islands, with steep cliffs and narrow fringing reefs. A Wesleyan mission and some German and other traders are settled here and on the adjacent part of New Britain. The coasts of New Britain are in some parts precipitous; in others the mountains lie farther inland, and the coast is flat and bordered by fringing reefs. The west coast of New Ireland is generally precipitous, and crowned by a table-land which falls away towards the east. The north coasts of New Britain and the adjacent islands are studded with active volcanoes rising to 4000 feet, and at both ends of the island these are on a very grand scale. The scenery and vegetation are varied and luxuriant, with abundant wood and water. In New Ireland images, apparently representing deceased relations, like the karwars of New Guinea, are made of a rock indistinguishable from pure chalk, which is said to exist nowhere else in the Pacific. These are deposited in buildings set apart for them. There are also peculiar wooden masks, worn at stated inter-tribal meetings and dances, and composite wooden images in which the human figure, male or female, is surrounded by those of the snake, fish, owl, tern, &c.

The people of New Britain, especially towards the west, resemble those of eastern New Guinea, height about 5 feet 6 inches, with matted curly hair; the women appear stunted and oppressed. They are a finer race than those farther east in Duke of York and New Ireland, who, excepting an evidently Polynesian colony on the south coast of New Ireland, rather resemble the Solomon Islanders. Both are thorough cannibals. Their weapons are clubs (stone-headed in New Britain), spears, tomahawks, and slings. They perform complicated surgical operations with an obsidian knife or a shark’s tooth. They construct ingenious fishing weirs. The villages are clean and well-kept, the houses varying from miserable huts 8 by 5 feet without furniture to neat well-built semicircular houses, the roof extending to the ground behind, with front of wicker work, leaving a space for the door. The common dead are buried or exposed to sharks on the reefs; bodies' of chiefs are exposed in the fork of a tree. Girls for some' time before puberty are confined in cages of pandanus leaves about 4 feet diameter, possibly to fatten them, an old Polynesian custom. Justice is executed, and tabus, feasts, taxes, &c., arranged, by a mysterious disguised figure, the “duk-duk.” Only the chief and those who have been initiated on payment of a heavy fee know who or what he is. Women and children are forbidden to look on him. The custom, perhaps, points to a time when there was a priesthood, aiding the chief to rule the people. The population is divided into two exogamous classes. The children belong to the class of the mother, and when the father dies go to her village for support, the land and fruit trees in each district being divided between the two classes. Compare the Polynesian custom “tamaha” (the Fijian “vasu”), which gives certain privileges to a sister’s children. There are several dialects, the construction resembling Fijian, as in the pronominal suffixes in singular, triad, and plural; the numerals, however, are Polynesian in character.

See Wilfrid Powell, Wanderings in a Wild Country, and paper in Roy. Geog. Soc. Proceedings, 1881; Rev. G. Brown in Roy. Geog. Soc. Journal, 1877, and Proceedings, 1881; Verhandlungen der Ges. f. Erdkunde zu Berlin, x., Nos. 5 and 6.

The whole of New Brunswick is well watered. Rivers, bays, and lakes are numerous, and several are navigable for vessels of large tonnage. The principal rivers are the St John, Miramichi, Restigouche, Saint Croix, Petitcodiac, Richibucto, and Nepisiguit. The St John, which is famous for its scenery, rises in the State of Maine, and is over 450 miles in length. It is navigable for vessels of moderate tonnage from St John on the Bay of Fundy to Fredericton, a distance of about 88 miles, but steamers of light draught ply as far as Woodstock, 65 miles farther, and during the rainy season boats may proceed to Grand Falls, a cataract 70 or 80 feet high, 225 miles from the sea. Above the falls the St John has been navigated by a steamer to the mouth of the Madawaska, 40 miles. The river is an important highway, especially of the lumber traffic. About 9,000,000 acres of New Brunswick, 2,000,000 acres of Quebec, and 6,000,000 acres of Maine lands are drained by it. Among the many lakes communicating with the St John is Grand Lake, 30 miles long, and varying from 3 to 9 miles in breadth. The Miramichi rises in the county of Carleton, and flows in a north-easterly direction into a bay of the same name. It is 225 miles long, 7 miles wide at its mouth, and navigable for large vessels as far as Nelson (46 miles). In the spring and autumn, when full freshets prevail, small steamers and tow-boats can ply a much greater distance. The branches of the Miramichi drain a fourth of the entire province. An extensive lumber trade is done in this district, and many sawmills are driven by the river. Its fisheries are specially valuable, including salmon, trout, bass, smelt, and lobster. The Restigouche forms the north-east boundary of the province, is 100 miles in length, and discharges into the Bay of Chaleur. It is composed of five main branches, from which fact it derives its name, signifying in Indian “the river which divides like the hand.” It is a considerable waterway, 3 miles in width at its mouth, and 9 fathoms in depth. Large vessels may safely navigate it 18 miles from the bay. The main river and its tributaries drain over 4000 square miles of fertile and well-wooded country. A good deal of lumber is carried on it, and the harbour is secure and safe for ships of ordinary tonnage. The St Croix separates the State of Maine from New Brunswick at its south-west part. Its source is a chain of lakes called the Chiputneticook. The Petitcodiac is navigable for 25 miles for ships, and schooners of 80 tons burden may proceed to the head of the tide, 12 miles farther; it empties into Shepody Bay. The Richibucto discharges into the Gulf of St Lawrence. The Nepisiguit and Tobique (a tributary of the St John) in the north are in much repute among anglers.

The coast-line of New Brunswick is indented with numerous fine bays and harbours. There are few islands. The Bay of Fundy is a huge arm of the sea extending into the land between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, and terminating in two smaller bays, Chignecto Bay and the Basin of Minas. Its length up to Chignecto Bay is 140 miles, and its extreme breadth 45 miles. It is noted for its high tides, -which are influenced by the Gulf Stream, and rise about 30 feet at St John and 60 feet at the head of Chignecto Bay, rushing into the latter with remarkable force. At Bay Verte, 14 miles distant, the tide rises little more than 4 or 5 feet. The Bay of Chaleur, which presents no impediment to navigation, and has several excellent harbours, is over 90 miles in length, and from 20 to 25 miles in breadth. On its southern side the shores are low, and on the northern bold and precipitous. The other inlets of consequence on the east coast are Miramichi, Richibucto, Buctouche, Cocagne, and Shediac Bays; on the south coast are Passamaquoddy Bay, St John Harbour, and Chignecto Bay.

Geology. —The northern divisions of the province are occupied by metamorphic slates and rocks of Silurian age. The area of the Carboniferous system includes the greater part of the counties of Westmoreland, Queen’s, Sunbury, and Gloucester, a considerable portion of York and Northumberland, and the whole of the county of Kent. The Lower Carboniferous and Devonian systems prevail in the western portion about the head of the Grand Lake and on the river Canaan. Grey sandstone, shales, and conglomerates predominate. Along the southern coast, from the head of the Bay of Fundy to the State of Maine, there is a belt comprising Laurentian, Huronian, Cambrian, and Silurian rocks. Dr J. W. Dawson says, “the Carboniferous plain of New Brunswick corresponds to and at its eastern extremity is connected with that of Nova Scotia; and its hilly ranges of altered and igneous rocks form, with those of Nova Scotia, outlying ridges rudely parallel to the great Appalachian breastbone of America, and, like it, descending under the level of newer deposits and of the sea at their north-eastern extremities.” The Newer Red Sandstone and Middle Cambrian formations are also to be found in New Brunswick, with trap, limestones, porphyry, granite, syenite, felsites, and gneiss. Many of the strata are rich in fossil remains. The coal-fields of the province occupy an area of over 11,000 square miles. Iron and plumbago or graphite occur in workable quantities, the deposits of the former being extensive and valuable. Manganese abounds and forms an article of export. Gold, in small quantities, is found on the banks of the Shiktehawk, a tributary of the St John. Professor Bailey has discovered drift gold on the headwaters of the Tobique and the Miramichi, and at the Grand Falls of the St John. At St Stephen, in Charlotte county, it occurs in quartz veins in micaceous schist, and in the same neighbourhood in a black plumbaginous slate. Copper, lead, nickel, and zinc, with important deposits of antimony, complete the list of minerals.

Climate.— The climate of New Brunswick is somewhat similar to that of the more southern parts of Quebec. It is subject to pronounced extremes of heat and cold, but is considered healthy, and epidemics are rare. In the interior the thermometer sometimes registers 95° Fahr, in the summer, while in the winter, which begins early in December and lasts until the end of March, the mercury frequently drops as low as 35° below zero. At Fredericton, the capital, the temperature ranges from - 35° to 100°, the mean being about 42°. The winters are severe, and snow falls to a great depth, especially in the north, where also wild and cold winds prevail. In the south the winters are milder and more broken. The most charming season is autumn, and particularly that part of it known as the Indian summer, which lasts about six weeks.

Agriculture, dec.— Vegetation is rapid. A very large portion of the country is well adapted for agriculture, the soil being exceedingly fertile. On the “intervales” or low lands enormous quantities of hay are grown, while the yield on the high lands varies from one to three tons per acre. Wheat, oats, buckwheat, rye, barley, hemp, and flax yield good crops, and potatoes, turnips, beets, celery, carrots, parsnips, and pease and beans grow well. The principal fruits are apples, plums, cherries, gooseberries, currants, strawberries, and raspberries. A large export trade of recent years has sprung up in the latter fruits. Hay has always been exported from the province to the United States, where it commands good prices. Farming is not prosecuted in New Brunswick to the extent it should be, and the inhabitants fail to raise enough produce to meet their own wants.

The amount of land, under crop in 1871 was 778,461 acres, and in pasture 385,105 acres. In 1881 these figures were increased to 849,678 acres under crop and 392,169 in pasture. The crops raised during the latter year were 521,956 bushels of wheat, 84,183 of barley, 3,297,534 of oats, 1,587,223 of buckwheat, 18,157 of corn, 43,121 of pulse, 990,336 of turnips, 6,961,016 of potatoes,'159,043 of other roots, 414,046 tons of hay. The number of horses in 1881 was 52,975; of working oxen, 8812; of horned cattle, 203,748; of sheep, 221,163; and of swine, 53,087. In 1882 760,531 lb of wool and 78,203 lb of bees’ honey were raised.

Commerce.— New Brunswick ranks as one of the most amply wooded countries in the world. Great forests of trees cover an extensive portion of its surface, and lumbering forms one of its chief industries. The principal trees are pine, hackmatac, spruce, cedar, beech, maple, hemlock, birch, fir, elm, oak, larch, butternut, ash, poplar, chestnut, and sumach. Though lumbering and fishing form the main occupations of the people, many are engaged in the mining and manufacturing industries. The total value ' of the produce of the forest exported in 1881-82 was $4,724,422; of the fisheries, $753,251; of the mines, $140,908; of animals and their produce, $321,426; of agricultural produce, $256,994; of manufactures, $365,748. The total value of the exports was $7,474,407, and of the imports $6,707,244. The chief articles of export are fish, timber and lumber, iron, coal, gypsum, manganese, hay, &c. The imports embrace wheat and other grain, flour and corn-meal, salted meats, coffee, tea, sugar, molasses, tobacco, woollen, cotton, and silk goods, fruits, &c.

Industries. — Shipbuilding, which was prosecuted on an extensive scale some twelve or fifteen years ago, has fallen off considerably of late, owing principally to the fact that iron ships and steamers have taken the place of the wooden craft in the carrying trade. During the year 1882 the number of vessels built in New Brunswick was 66, tonnage 16,820. On the 31st December 1882 the vessels registered in the province and remaining on the registry books of the several ports amounted to 1064, tonnage 308,961. In that year there were engaged in the coasting trade, including steamers and sailing vessels, 4435 craft, representing a tonnage of 415,029. The number of saw-mills in the province is 478, employing 7175 hands. There are also 166 flour and grist mills, and 83 tanneries. Other industries are lime-burning, shingle-making, manufacture of woollen cloth and cotton warps, cheese and butter making, sash, door, and blind factories, iron working, and brickmaking. In 1871 the amount of capital invested in industries was $5,976,176; in 1881 it reached $8,425,282,—19,922 hands being employed in manufacturing, $3,866,011 paid *in wages, and $11,060,842 worth of raw materials consumed. The total value of the articles produced was $18,512,658.

Fisheries.— The chief seats of the fisheries are in the Harbour of St John, on the islands at the mouth of the Bay of Fundy, and on the north shore. Cod, haddock, salmon, trout, sturgeon, holibut white fish, herring, shad, gaspereaux, smelt, bass, mackerel, and eels comprise the principal varieties taken. Of recent years the fishing -.business has been most industriously pursued, and several firms have gone extensively into the canning of salmon, oysters, and lobsters for export. Fish-breeding establishments are in operation, maintained by the Government of the Dominion. In 1881 there were 205 larger vessels and 4284 boats engaged in the fisheries.

Game, <fcc.—Game is abundant,—wild ducks, teal, wild geese, partridges, woodcocks, pigeons, plover, snipe, &c., occurring in great quantity. No fewer than 270 varieties of birds have been already discovered, and ornithologists state that that number can be increased. Of wild animals the principal are the bear, wolf, deer, moose, caribou, lynx, fox, musk-rat, mink, marten, ermine, hare, squirrel, and beaver.

Communication.— Good waggon roads intersect the province wherever there is a settlement. Telegraphic lines are established throughout the country, and the means of railway communication are excellent. The Inter-Colonial, which is the principal line, runs from St John to Moncton and thence to Halifax, N.S. At Moncton a branch line extends to Shediac, while the main division proceeds in a northerly direction through the counties of Westmoreland, Kent, Northumberland, Gloucester, and Restigouche, crossing the Restigouche river at the valley of the Metapedia, where the scenery is varied and beautiful, and thence ,to Point Levis opposite the ancient city of Quebec. The head offices are at Moncton. The St John and Maine Railway runs from St John westward to the State of Maine, connecting at Fredericton Junction with the Fredericton Branch Railway, at Μ‘Adam with the New Brunswick and Canada Railway, and at Bangor (Maine) with all the great railway lines of the United States. The New Brunswick and Canada Railway runs from St Andrews to Woodstock, and has branches to St Stephen and Houlton (Maine). At Woodstock it connects with a branch of the New Brunswick Railway which runs between Fredericton and Woodstock and Edmundston in the new county of Madawaska. The Grand Southern Railway runs from St John to St Stephen, the Albert Railway from Salisbury to Hopewell, the Elgin from Petitcodiac to Elgin, and the St Martins and Upham Railway runs from Hampton to Qùaco on the shore of the Bay of Fundy. The total length of the railways now (1883) is about 1002 miles.

Population.— The province is divided into fifteen counties, viz., Restigouche, Gloucester, Northumberland, Kent, Westmoreland, Albert, St John, Charlotte, King’s, Queen’s, Sunbury, York, Carleton’, Victoria, and Madawaska. Up to the 31st October 1882 9,937,433 acres were granted by the Government and occupied, leaving 7,455,977 acres still vacant. The population of the province, 285,594 in 1871, was 321,233 (164,119 males, 157,114 females) in 1881. There are two Roman Catholic dioceses, one at St John and the other at Chatham, and one see of the Church of England at Fredericton. The following table shows the religious denominations and the number of their adherents :— [table]

A large proportion of the population is composed of emigrants from Great Britain and their descendants. In the northern counties and in the valley of the Madawaska there are many settlements of French Acadians, and in the same localities and along the shores of the St John river there are Indians belonging to the Malicite, Micmac, and other tribes, numbering in all 1401. During the last forty years these have varied from 1200 to 1400. The tribes, though resembling each other in physique and appearance, differ very materially in origin and almost wholly in language. The extent of land granted to the Indian population by the Government of New Brunswick is 58,662 acres. Within the last six or seven years a most flourishing colony of Danes has been settled in the province.

Administration.— The affairs of the province are administered by a lieutenant-governor (salary $9000) and an executive council composed of six members with portfolios and three without offices or salary, assisted by a legislative assembly of 41 representatives and a legislative council of 18 members. The latter are appointed for life, and the former are elected Jt>y the people every four years. The lieutenant-governor is appointed by the governor-general of Canada in 'council. New Brunswick returns to the Canadian House of Commons 16 members, and 10 senators are appointed by the crown. The public revenue in 1882 was $643,710, and the expenditure $614,236. The principal source of income is the annual subsidy granted to the province, under the terms of the British North America Act of 1867, by the Dominion Government. This subsidy is computed on a fixed rate of 80 cents per head of population; $50,000 are allowed for government and $150,000 for export duty. In 1882 the amount paid on this basis to New Brunswick was $456,903'20. It will increase until the population reaches 400,000, when the 80 cents will be regularly calculated on that number. The remainder of the revenue is derived from the sales of crown lands, timber limits, mining licences, fishing licences, fees, and other miscellaneous receipts. The judiciary consists of a supreme court with chief and five puisne judges haying law and equity jurisdiction, a court of marriage and divorce, a vice-admiralty court, a court for· the trial and punishment of piracy and other offences on the high seas, a probate court, and six county courts. These officers are appointed for life by the federal authorities. The provincial legislature meets at Fredericton, where the Government offices are situated. The militia of the province consists of an active force of one regiment of cavalry (seven troops), two batteries of field artillery, seven batteries of garrison artillery, one company of engineers, and five battalions of infantry and rifles, in all 140 officers and 1570 non-commissioned officers and men.

Education.— The present school law was passed in 1871. Under its provisions school trustees of each district are compelled to provide school accommodation for all persons therein between the ages of five and twenty free of charge. In addition to the provincial grant a tax is levied in each county equal to 30 cents per head, and a large fund sufficient to carry out the law (including a poll-tax of $1 per head) is raised by the localities. The educational institutions aided by the Government are the university of New Brunswick (founded in 1828 under the title of King’s College, and having its seat at Fredericton), a normal or training school for teachers, and a system of common schools ranging from the primary to the grammar or high school department. The common schools are non-sectarian and free to all. The province expended for this service in 1882 $166,733. In the summer term of 1881 the number of schools was 1386, of teachers 1453, and of pupils 51,921. During the winter course of 1882 there were 1317 schools at work, taught by 1371 teachers, and attended by 48,805 boys and girls. The total number of pupils in attendance at the schools within the year was 64,267. Besides the university at Fredericton there is the Mount Allison Wesleyan College at Sackville. The public charitable institutions receiving aid from the local Government are the Provincial Lunatic Asylum and the City Hospital, St John, and the deaf and dumb school at Fredericton; and the blind school and deaf and dumb asylum at Halifax, N.S., receive an annual grant from the province also. In consideration of this the latter admit pupils from New Brunswick. The lazaretto for lepers at Tracadie and the marine hospital at St John are maintained by the Dominion.

History.— New Brunswick was settled in the first place by the French in July 1604, and with Nova Scotia belonged to that part of New France called Acadia until 1713, when it passed into the hands of England. A dispute arose between the two powers concerning the precise limits of Acadia, and the question remained a vexed one until the treaty of Paris, 1763, when the whole domain was finally ceded to Great Britain. In 1764 a body of Scottish farmers and labourers arrived in the country and took up their homes in the Miramichi and other districts. The year 1783 is memorable as the date when the Loyalists landed from the United States and settled in the colony. In the following year Nova Scotia and New Brunswick separated, and they remained distinct provinces until 1867,...

The population is probably about 30,000, but has diminished greatly since the French occupation. There are two distinct types: one is sub-Papuan, probably aboriginal, dark brown, with black frizzly hair, rounded narrow retreating forehead, high cheek-bones, and flat nose depressed at the root below the prominent brows; the other, with all these features modified, better-developed physique, and lighter colour, strongly resembles the Polynesian, and is most numerous in the east and south, where most of the upper class belong to it; but the two types intermingle everywhere. The women, though hard worked, are less degraded than is usual among Papuans. Their marriage ceremonies end with a simulated flight and capture. The people are hospitable to strangers, and not quarrelsome among themselves, though fond of war with another tribe, which is declared by a masked messenger, who taking a spear and money with him thrusts the former among the challenged tribe, and then, throwing down the money in atonement of the injury his∙ spear may have done, is allowed to return unharmed. Their weapons are clubs, slings, stone hatchets (resembling the Australian), and spears with a throwing cord. Rows of stones are found commemorating the numbers of enemies killed and eaten in former wars. The French have found them formidable antagonists on many occasions; the last ‘ ‘ revolt” was put down after much trouble and bloodshed in 1881. There are various degrees of hereditary chiefships, distinguished by insignia on their houses. As in some-other Pacific islands, when a son is born the chiefship passes to him, but the father continues to govern as regent. They have strict ideas of property—individual, village, and tribal. The people have to work on the chiefs plantations and fisheries, and also work in parties for each other, breaking up new land, &c. This often ends in feasting and in dances {pilu pilu), which include allegorical representations of events or ideas.

Their huts are usually beehive-shaped, with a single apartment,, low narrow door, and no chimney. The fire inside is their only defence against mosquitoes. The central pole is continued outside, usually by a rude figure surmounted by a long post elaborately decorated, especially in the chiefs’ houses, which far overtop the others, and have a good deal of grotesque hand carving, something like but inferior to that seen in New Zealand.

The food is chiefly vegetable, so that there is considerable scarcity at certain seasons; but almost anything is eaten, including all sorts of insects, and a steatite earth which contains a little copper. The exception is the lizard and the gecko, of which they have a superstitious dread.

They believe in the power of spirits to take up their abode in persons or inanimate objects, and employ the aid of the soothsayer in this and many other emergencies of life. The dead are supposed to go down into the sea at the west end of the island. Cocoa-nut trees, a valuable sacrifice, are cut down on the death of a chief. Like other cannibals, they have a certain knowledge of anatomy and surgery, and also of medicine. Their music is quite rudimentary, and consists of little else than beating or sounding in time. Their money is made of different sorts of shells, but other articles of value—axes, skins, mats, &c.—are used as mediums of exchange.

The languages of the different tribes are mutually unintelligible. They express abstract ideas imperfectly. Dr Patouillet says that there are several words for eating, each applied to a particular article of food. Their reckoning shows the same peculiarity. The numbers go up to five, and for living objects the word bird is added, for inanimate yam, for large objects ship. There are other terms for bundles of sugar-canes, rows (planted) of yams, &c.; and sometimes things are counted by threes. Ten is two fives, 15 three fives, 20 is a “man” (ten fingers and ten toes), 100 is “five men,” and so on.

The free white population, settlers and miners, numbers about 3000; officials and troops, 3000; transportés and déportés (ordinary and political convicts), with their families, 4000 and 6700 respectively. Some of the planters and graziers are fairly prosperous, but the material development of the country does not advance rapidly. There seems a general want of energy, a deficiency of banking facilities and of roads and means of transport. It is in fact found difficult to work the settlement both as a free and as a penal colony. The larger proprietors are free immigrants, but are being swamped by the more numerous small ones, who are “libérés,” holding small concessions, and bound—theoretically at least—not to leave the country. The déportés and transportés are under separate regulations. The latter when well-behaved are hired out to the free settlers at 12 francs a month. The libérés either receive a very small allowance from Government, or are permitted to take service, receiving 30 to 50 francs a month, with their board. The sending out of the families of convicts, with the view to promote settlement, has not answered well. Free concessions are offered with the same object, especially to retired officials and others. Large concessions have also been made to agricultural colonies, which have mostly failed. The agricultural establishments worked by convicts have answered better, the lands belonging partly to colonists, and the convict labourers eventually obtaining a certain status, and permission to marry. Out of a total area of about 1,600,000 hectares, half is unfit for cultivation or pasture. Up to 1877,130,965 hectares were taken up, and probably half the available land is now taken. The miners in New Caledonia are chiefly Australians, but out of several hundred concessions of mines, chiefly nickel, only a few have been worked. The intention of the French Government to send yearly to New Caledonia 5000 récidivistes or habitual criminals, to be released after three years’ detention, causes serious uneasiness in Australia.

The trade was valued in 1874 at 13,471,000 francs, the imports being three times the value of the exports, and the greater part carried in foreign vessels.

Principal Authorities.— Ch. Lemire, La Colonisation Française en Nouvelle Calédonie-, papers—(geological) by Jules Garnier in Annales des Mines, 1867, and by Herteau, Ibid., 1876, and (anthropological) by Dr Bourgarel in Mém. de la Soc. <Γ Anthropologie de Paris, vol. i.; Dr J. Patouillet, Trois ans en Nouvelle Calédonie.

The north coasts are sometimes level, as at parts of Geelvink Bay and the extensive delta of the great Amberno river, at Walckenaar and Humboldt Bays, and farther east towards Cape della Torre, near which, and near Huon Gulf, there are large rivers; otherwise the shores are steep-to, and apparently rising, with promontories jutting 20 to 40 miles out, and some good harbours. There is no barrier reef off this coast. High distant mountains are observed at every opening, those towards the east rising in successive and highly fertile terraces to some 13,000 feet. No active volcanoes have as yet been observed on the mainland, but Mr W. Powell reports masses of pumice on the slopes of the Finisterre mountains. Severe earthquakes, too, occur on the north side, and there is a line of volcanic activity parallel to this coast some 20 to 50 miles distant. Near its east end are the D’Entrecasteaux Islands (7000 feet), richly wooded, with rocks of raised coral and boiling alkaline springs. Cape Bourou appears to be the extremity of the lofty Charles Louis range, over 16,000 feet, the tops of which seem from the distance to be snow-covered. East from Cape Bourou the mountains recede out of sight, the sea is shallow, and the flat mangrove-covered coast is intersected by creeks and rivers laden with mud, as far as the Gulf of Papua, where Signor D’Albertis reports that he steamed 500 miles up the Fly river, probably one of several channels draining a vast swamp country between the mountains and the sea. He found the tropical forest scenery varied by treeless plains, with isolated hills rising from them, like the islands in the neighbouring Torres Straits from the sea. These tracts are Australian in character. The hills probably escaped the submersion which, besides forming Torres Straits, covered the surrounding country, and thus remained as nuclei of an Australian flora,—the plains, on again emerging, being occupied, in great measure, by the tropical vegetation from the westward. Beyond Redscar Head in the Gulf of Papua the country again rises, having an Australian appearance,—open grassy hills with scattered timber sloping to the coast, which is here skirted by a barrier reef with occasional openings, affording good shelter to vessels. Inland, densely wooded hills and valleys with rivers and rich cultivable soil are backed by the great Owen Stanley range (13,000 feet), which terminates at the east forks in bluffs 2000 feet high.

Geology.— Of the geology of New Guinea little is known. In the north-west the Arfak mountains are mainly granite and gneiss. Near Geelvink Bay dark limestones occur, apparently ancient, and stratified clay slates. Bismuth is found here at Moom. Miosnom island, opposite, is volcanic. Raised coral is frequent on this (north) coast, and the streams bring down pebbles of plutonic rocks and sandstones. Clay ironstone is found at Humboldt Bay, on the river Jakata near M ’ Cluer Gulf, and at Lakahia Island, and a Tertiary coal (lignite) at Lakahia and in Galewo Strait. On the east side of the Gulf of Papua the coast range is of recent limestone. At Hall Sound calcareous clays from the Lower Miocene contain fossil shells identical with those found in Victoria and South Australia. Small fragments and pebbles, sent from Redscar and Astrolabe Bays (probably coming from the great central range), consisting of mica slate, quartz, sandstones, greenstones, and jasperoid rocks, are undistinguishable from those of the Devonian and Silurian series of the gold-fields of New South Wales. A black magnetic-iron sand (with traces of gold) and plumbago are reported from this (south-east) coast. Some of the Torres Straits islands are of raised coral, others of stratified sandstones with huge overlying blocks of the same and conglomerates, others volcanic.

Climate.— The climate of the coast is unhealthy, especially during the transition between the monsoons, which is long and irregular owing to the action of the high mountain ranges on these winds. The heat is tempered by the heavy rainfall, discharged by the north-west monsoon chiefly in the west and north; the south-east monsoon also is often wet, especially in the east and south districts. Torres Straits are healthier, though the heat is great and the amount of salt in the air is trying to many. From July to September the force of the south-east monsoon there is such that even steamers cannot always face it and the tide together.

Flora. — The flora is mainly that of the Indian Archipelago, which predominates even in the islands of Torres Straits; but on the shores of the Gulf of Papua, and inland, Australian vegetation is represented by Eucalyptus, acacias, and Pandanus ; and Australian types are found as far north as Humboldt Bay. Over great part of New Guinea dense forests prevail, clothing the mountains to a height of several thousand feet, the timber of enormous height, though the species are fewer than in the great islands of the archipelago. Among them various kinds of Ficus, Casuarina, Araucaria, Dammara, Podocarpus, Calophyllum, Aleurites, Ebenaceae, Canarium, Durio, Wormia, and many species of palms. The trees are matted with creepers {Bauhinia, Bignonia, Asclepias, &c.), with a dense undergrowth of brushwood, ferns, and lycopodiums, but their density often makes the herbaceous vegetation poor. Of the smaller growths are great reeds and grasses covering the swamps and open spaces; aloes, aroids, orchids, Sdtaminese (ginger, cardamum, &c.), Laurineae, Piperaceae (betel and others, wild and cultivated), Myrtaceae, Vinifer ae, pine-apple, nutmeg, cotton shrubs, Urticeae, Apocyneae, Malvaceae, Papilionaceae {Butea, Erythrina, Clitoria, Mimosa, &c.), Justices, and Begonias’, and in the mountains a sub-alpine flora, oaks, rhododendrons, vacciniums, epilobiums, Umbelliferae, &c. Among cultivated plants are the banana, papaya, orange, sugar cane, maize, millet, taro {Arum esculentum), Abelmoschus Manihot, Jambosa, yams, sweet potato, and pumpkins, and among the Amberbaki the dry rice. The cocoa-palm grows everywhere; the sago-palm grows wild in abundance in the swamps, and in the north-west each hill tribe, apparently to avoid collisions, draws its supplies from a different district of the coast. They have also in the hills a tree called “sali,” with top and pith resembling sago. Tobacco of good quality is brought down from the interior, and an illustrious antiquity is claimed for the plant by a tradition which describes it as the miraculous fruit of a woman named Heva. In some places the kava of the Pacific {Piper methysticum) is used. At Doreh a cotton plant {G. vitifolium) grows wild, and is also cultivated.

Fauna.— New Guinea is very poor in Mammalia. According to Mr Wallace {Geographical Distribution of Animals'), there are as yet known, besides a peculiar form of pig, some mice, and various Pteropidse, four families of marsupials, all Australian, viz., Dasyuridae, Peramélidae, Macropodidae, and Phalangistidas, with nine species Among them are a Dendrolagus or tree-kangaroo and several cuscus. There are also two echidnas. The large animals reported by travellers may possibly be gigantic marsupials akin to those found fossil in the Queensland Pleistocene. The wealth and beauty of the avifauna are great. Count Salvador! gives 1028 species, belonging to 321 genera, for the Papuan subregion {i.e., from the Solomon Islands westwards to, but excluding, Celebes). Of these about 470 are peculiar to New Guinea and the adjacent islands, including Aru. The more numerous and important genera are pre-eminently Australian in character, with many species peculiarly developed. There is also, as might be expected, a considerable number of Malayan forms, some common to the whole region, some only found here and at other far distant spots in it. The most remarkable orders, besides the birds of paradise, which are only found in New Guinea and the neighbouring islands, are the honeysuckers, flycatchers, parrots, kingfishers, and pigeons, all rich in special forms. Birds of prey are rare; vultures, pheasants, woodpeckers, and finches absent. Mr Wallace attributes the unusually large number of “beautiful” birds, 50 per cent, of the whole, to the numbers of parrots, lories, cockatoos, pigeons, and kingfishers, and to the absence of thrushes, shrikes, warblers, and other dull-coloured groups. Of snakes, which may migrate freely on floating timber, we find out of 24 genera (belonging to 11 families) 6 Oriental, 4 Australian, and only 4 specially Papuan; of lizards 3 families with 24 genera, of which only 3 are peculiarly Oriental, 3 Australian, 6 Papuan. The Amphibia (6 families with 8 genera), for which the salt water is a barrier, have no western affinities, and those not of wide distribution are almost exclusively Australian,—a fact of obvious geological significance. The Lepidoptera are numerous and singularly beautiful, as are the Coleoptera, which Mr Wallace says often display the metallic lustre characteristic of the plumage of the New Guinea birds.

Population.— The population consists of à great number of isolated tribes, differing much in appearance and language. The level of civilization varies, but seldom reaches even the average Pacific standard.

They have no single name for New Guinea, nor any idea of its extent, only using terms signifying “great land,” to distinguish it from the adjacent islands or from Australia.

The name Papùa is a Malayan term signifying frizzled, in reference to the hair; and, as distinguishing the peoples so characterized from the Australians, the term “Papuan” is by some writers thought more suitable than “Melanesian,” while equally distinguishing the race from the brown Polynesians. The type of man known as Papuan or Melanesian (see Melanesia) is found here in its greatest purity, and app⅛rs to occupy the whole island excepting its east extremity. But among tribes occupying so wide an area, having little intercommunication, and with other races at no great distance, many deviations from the normal type must be expected, and in fact it is not very easy to define this type. Its leading characteristics are— a medium height; fleshy rather than muscular frame; colour a sooty brown, varying, but decidedly darker than the Malay; high but narrow and rather retreating forehead, with thick brows; nose sometimes flat and wide at the nostrils, but offener hooked and “Jewish,” with depressed point, a feature represented in their karwars or ancestral images; prognathism general, but not universal; lips thick and projecting, so as to make the chin seem retreating; high cheek bones; hair black, frizzly, trained into a mop. The appearance ⅛ thus negroid, and is said to resemble the population of the African coast opposite Aden. But in the Arfak mountains in the north-west, and at points on the west and north coasts and adjacent islands, very degraded and stunted tribes are found, with hardly the elements of social organization (possibly the aboriginal race unmixed with foreign elements), and resembling the Aetas or Negritos of the Philippines, and other kindred tribes in the Malay Archipelago. On the banks of the Fly river D’Albertis observed at least two widely differing types, those on its upper course bearing some resemblance to the tribes of the eastern coast. Here, wedged in among the ruder Papuans, who reappear at. the extremity of the peninsula, we find a very different-looking people, whom competent observers, arguing from appearance, language, and customs, assert to be a branch of the fair Polynesian race. But there are obvious signs among them of much admixture of blood; and they or their congeners again may easily have modified their neighbours immediately west of them, just as Malay and other influences have done on the other end of the island. Indeed the greater degree of intelligence and good looks observed at points along the north coast may be due simply to this cause. On the west coasts there is a semi-civilization, due to intercourse with Malays and Bughis, who have settled at various points, and carry on the trade with the neighbouring islands, in some of which, while the coast population is Malay or mixed, that of the interior is identical with the people of the mainland. On the west coasts Mohammedan teaching has also some civilizing effect. Many of the tribes at this west end of New Guinea are, at all events in war time, head-hunters, and in the mountains cannibals. Cannibalism in fact is practised here and there throughout New Guinea. Tho frequent hostility and mistrust of strangers arc partly due to slave-hunting raids and ill-treatment by traders, but the different tribes vary much in character. Thus in the mountains of the north-west the Karons, a short, hardy, well-built people, cultivate very little, living chiefly on wild plants which their women cook in hollow bamboos, and obtaining what they require from without, as knives, ornaments, &c., either by plunder, or by disposal of slaves or bird skins; while their neighbours the Kebars grow vegetables and very fine tobacco, which they sell to the Amberbaki, a peaceful industrious coast tribe. The mountain tribes are usually despised by their coast neighbours as ruder and more destitute of resources, but when more numerous and fiercer, as in the south of west New Guinea, the tables are turned, and the coast people live in perpetual terror of their neighbours, who plunder and enslave them.

At Humboldt Bay the people, though uncertain, rude, and warlike, are ready to trade, and tribes of a kindred race are found farther east, at Astrolabe Bay; here the Russian Miklucho Maclay lived among them for some time, and was favourably impressed by them. Still farther east, the plateaus of the Finisterre ranges are highly cultivated and artificially irrigated by a comparatively fair people. Many tribes in the south-west seem to be migratory. At Princess Marianne Straits tribes much wilder than those farther west, naked and painted, swarm like monkeys in their trees, the stems of which are submerged at high tide. But the Torres Straits islanders are employed by Europeans in the pearl shell fishery, and are liked as labourers; andin some of the Ké and Aru Islands the Papuan inhabitants form orderly Christian communities. The people of the south-east peninsula seem generally, like the typical Polynesian, of a mild, accessible type. Englishmen, wandering inland and losing their way, have been found and brought back by them. Their manners are more courteous, their women better treated, than is usual with Papuans, but they show perhaps less ingenuity and artistic taste. Their children, in the mission schools, show much intelligence.

While tribes allied to the Papuan have been traced through Timor, Flores, and the highlands of the Malay Peninsula to the Deccan of India, these “Oriental negroes” have many curious resemblances with some East-African tribes. Besides the appearance of the hair, the raised cicatrices, the belief in omens and sorcery, the extraction of diseases in the form of bits of wood or stone, and the practices for testing the courage of youths, they are equally devoid of forethought or ambition, rude, merry, and boisterous, but amenable to discipline, and with decided artistic tastes and faculty.

Several of the above practices are also common to tho Australians, who, though generally inferior, have many points of resemblance (osteological and other) with the Papuans. The extinct Tasmanians were more closely allied to the Papuans.

The constitution of society is everywhere simple. Among the more advanced tribes rank is hereditary, otherwise the chiefs generally have but little power, most matters being settled by the assembly, a contrast to the Polynesian respect for birth and hereditary rank. The Papuan’s religious institutions are likewise simpler; there is no general object of worship, consequently no regular priesthood; the institution of tabu is less oppressive, and its sanction less awful, but the transgressor may still have to reckon, not only with the society or individual who imposed it, but also with offended spirits. Almost every crime is condoned by payment. A characteristic example of the feeling of the fair race towards the dark was seen in the contempt shown by the tribes of the south-east towards certain Melanesian teachers introduced by the English missionaries, while others brought from the Polynesian islands were treated with respect.

The Papuan women are, as a rule, more modest than the Polynesian.

In western New Guinea, according to the Dutch missionaries, there is a vague notion of a universal spirit, practically represented by several malevolent powers, as Manoin, the most powerful, who resides in the woods; Narwoje in the clouds, above the trees, a sort of Erl-König who carries off children; Faknik in the rocks by the sea, who raises storms. As a protection against these the people construct —having first with much ceremony chosen a tree for the purpose— certain rude images called karwars, each representing a recently dead progenitor, whose spirit is then invoked to occupy the image and protect them against their enemies and give success to their undertakings. The karwar is about a foot high, with head disproportionately large; the male figures are sometimes represented with a spear and shield, the female holding a snake. Omens are observed before starting on any expedition; if they are unfavourable the person threatened retires, and another day is chosen and the process repeated. They have magicians and rain-makers, and sometimes resort to ordeal to discover a crime. Temples (so-called) are found in the north and west, built like the houses, but larger, the piles being carved into figures, and the roof-beams and other prominent points decorated with representations of crocodiles or lizards, coarse human figures, and other grotesque ornamentation; but their use is not clear. Neither temples nor images (except small figures worn as amulets) occur among the people of the south-east, whose religious ideas seem vague and rudimentary; but they have a great dread of departed spirits, especially those of the hostile inland tribes, and of a being called Vata, who causes disease and death.

The dead are disposed of in various ways. The spirit is supposed not to leave the body immediately, which is either buried for a time and.then taken up and the bones cleaned and deposited in or near the dwelling, or it is exposed with the same object on a platform of -branches,'or dried over a fire, and the mummy kept for a few years. Sometimes the head, oftener the jaw bone, is kept as a relic. Food is placed on a grave,—with an infant a calabash of its mother’s inilk,-and a path is made to the sea that the spirit may bathe; but the spirits are everywhere dreaded as likely to injure the living. No one likes to go about, or into the water, after dark. Little imitation houses are placed in the woods to allure the spirits away. These dwell chiefly in the moon, and are particularly active at full moon. ’ The houses which they haunt, and beneath or near which their bodies lie buried, are deserted from time to time, especially by a newly-married couple, or by women before childbirth. Probably the effluvium from the buried corpse produces the feelings of sickness which are supposed to be caused by the spirit’s presence, and which subside when they leave the spot.

i Feasting and dances take place on the setting up of a karwar, on the return of warlike and other expeditions, at a marriage, birth, change of name, child’s first hair-cutting, and also some time after a death.

The chief diseases are skin diseases, with which in some places one-third of the population is affected,—among these a sort of leprosy to which, as well as to a dropsy (beri-bcrι), Europeans are subject,—catarrhs, boils, syphilis, and intermittent fevers, especially where there is much coral on the coast.

"The Papuan varies his vegetable diet with the flesh of the wild pig, wallabi,...

Physical Features.— The State lies on the Atlantic slope of the continent, forming part of the elevated belt bordering upon the ocean which culminates in three mountain districts, viz., Newfoundland, the White Mountains, and the Black Mountains in North Carolina. It is also situated east of the Blue Ridge and its northerly continuation in the New York highlands and the Green Mountain range, both of which are distinct from the true Appalachians—the latter being west of the great Appalachian limestone valley, and well-shown in the Catskill, Alleghany, and Cumber land ridges and plateaus. The Atlantic and White Mountain ranges are comparatively short, consisting of obtusely-pointed summits of gneissic or granitic rocks, either arranged en échelon or scattered in irregular groups. The White Mountains group first becomes noticeable in northern Maine, reaching the height of a mile at Mount Katahdin, and continues at less elevation south-westerly to the New Hampshire line, where it rapidly rises to its culmination in Mount Washington (6293 feet). The part of this mountainous area that lies within New Hampshire extends to about 1400 square miles. It is continued south-westerly, much reduced in elevation, beyond Mount Moosilauke,. along the highlands separating the tributaries of the Merrimack and Connecticut rivers, through New Hampshire and Massachusetts into Connecticut. The distinctive Montalban elevation is limited on the west and on the south by the Connecticut.

The geological reports published in 1878 show four important topographical features :—(1) the mountainous ridge following the eastern rim of the Connecticut river basin along the longest straight line that could be drawn within the State; (2) the elevated White Mountain tract, just north of the middle of the territory; (3) the comparatively low country between the two elevated districts just noted and the sea—three-fourths of which, away from the foothills, scarcely exceeds 500 feet above the sea-level; (4) a mountainous district north of the White Mountains, occupying Coos county in New Hampshire, Essex county in Vermont, and an indefinite region in Maine near the Quebec line. The average elevation of the land in New Hampshire is estimated to be 1200 feet above the sea. Of this more than one-half is situated below 1000 feet, and about one-sixth exceeds 2000 feet, and is comprised in the third area mentioned above. The average height of the Coos and Essex district will be found to exceed 1500 feet. Mount Washington is the only mountain peak exceeding 6000 feet; and eight others are above 5000 feet (Adams, Jefferson, Clay, two Monroes, Madison, Lafayette, and Lincoln).

Climate, Fauna, Flora.— These elevations have produced a marked effect upon the climate and natural products. The greatest annual precipitation is along the Merrimack river, 44 inches near Manchester and 46 above Franklin. It is only 35 inches near the sea-coast, and 40 inches on the upper Connecticut. The greatest precipitation is therefore on the seaward side of the long mountainous ridge constituting the backbone of the State. The annual isothermal lines vary from 48° Fahr, at Manchester to 40* in Coos county and 25° upon the summit of Mount Washington.

No less than four faunal areas are recognized, known as the Alleghanian, Canadian, Hudsonian, and Labrador. The first enters New Hampshire from the south, and is limited on the north by the line of 600 feet altitude, which is not far from the isothermal line of 45° Fahr., or the winter average of 20° Fahr, and the summer average of 65° Fahr. A few distinctive animals are the red-headed woodpecker, humming bird, bobolink, Baltimore oriole, blue jay, the box and painted turtles, and the rattlesnake. Among plants which are employed to determine the northern limit of this district are the hickory or shell bark, chestnut, mountain laurel or Kalmia, grape, and cranberry. A few characteristic animals of the Canadian district are the rose-breasted grosbeak, Canada jay, spruce partridge, crossbill, snowbird, caribou, and Canada lynx; the absence of reptiles is marked. A few of the trees are spruces, balsam fir, canoe birch, and bush maples. This district, comprising the northernmost county, reaches the height of 40Q0 feet, or the upper limit of trees. The Hudson district is a region of dwarfed spruces extending above the Canadian upper limit to the 5000 feet line, and limited to the White Mountains. None of the larger animals which flourish about Hudson’s Bay could be expected in such limited and mountainous peaks, so that the proof of the presence of this fauna is afforded by the plentiful distribution of the butterfly known as Brenthis montinus and the grasshopper Pezotettix glacialis. Owing to the small areas occupied by the Hudson and Labrador floras in the White Mountains, botanists have not yet succeeded in separating the plants peculiar to each. Fifty-three species are referred to them, called the sub-alpine and alpine districts, embracing such genera as Arenaria, Geum, Solidago, Potentilla, Ndbalus, Cassiope, Rhododendron, Salix, Saxifraga, I)iapensia, Carex, Poa, &c. The Labrador fauna is specially characterized by the abundant presence above the 5000 feet line of the butterfly Oeneis semidea. The presence of these faunal islands in the midst of the Canadian district is accounted for by the greater coldness of the climate in the glacial period. The whole country was then overspread by the peculiar animals and plants of the Arctic regions. As the climate moderated these organisms migrated both northwards and upwards into the higher districts, where they found the conditions favourable to their existence. Those which ascended the mountainous regions soon became separated from their congeners by the warmer temperature of the lowlands, and are now securely imprisoned in these mountain fastnesses.

New Hampshire was originally nearly covered by a dense forest. In 1876 it was estimated that more than one-fourth of the territory was still covered by trees, not of the original growth, but occupying land that had not been cleared. The trees valued for lumber, growing naturally in the forest, are the white, red, and pitch pines, spruces, hemlock, larch, red and sugar maple, beech, birch, red and white oak, chestnut, elm, hickory, poplar, cherry, &c. The pines have been described by the early settlers as commonly exceeding the height of 200 feet. One that was cut upon the Dartmouth College grounds measured 270 feet in length.

Geology.— The topography has a less intimate connexion with the geology. The rocks are nearly all crystalline, and show very few peculiarities of sculpturing except the eruptive massive granites. These are more or less conical, like volcanic accumulations of modern times. Examples may be seen in Mount Chocorua, Mount Pequawket, and Mount Moat. At the base is a coarse porphyritic gneiss, not less than 5000 feet thick. This shows itself principally along the Connecticut-Merrimack watershed south of the White Mountains. Next comes a protogene gneiss, saccharoidal and easily crumbling, having the same thickness, and developed most extensively in Cheshire county. A third gneissic group, 18,000 feet thick, was first separated from the other series in the Lake Winnipiseogee basin, and it is the principal component of the several ridges supposed to be repetitions of the Green Mountains. These three groups may be referred to the Laurentian system. Fourth there succeeds an imperfect gneiss, deficient in felspar, 10,000 feet thick, but developed in the highest of the White Mountains, and hence receiving the name of “Montalban.” Fifth comes the first of the schistose aggregates, occupying the synclinal positions between the gneisses. As it corresponds closely in stratigraphical and lithological features with that large series first separated from the Laurentian by Sir W. E. Logan upon Lake Huron, the name of Huronian is adopted for its development in New England. The largest terrane borders the Green Mountains through Vermont and Massachusetts. A second commences in the Connecticut basin near Bellows Falls, enlarging very much in the extreme· northern part of New Hampshire. These rocks are 12,000 feet thick. Other terranes of related rocks are to be found in Merrimack, Hillsborough, and Rockingham counties. Veins of copper and gold are wrought in the Huronian. Sixth there follows a succession of schists and slates 11,000 feet thick, whose relations are not well established. Seventh is a series of clay slates, auriferous, and 3000 feet thick, referred to the Cambrian. Eighth follows a group of mica schists and limestones, known as the Coos group, and the calciferous mica schist, perhaps 7000 or 8000 feet thick. These are claimed as Silurian by some. Ninth, and last, are fossiliferous beds of undetermined thickness, as much as 1000 feet, in which occur well-defined Pentamerus and Balysites. These show the rock to belong to the Niagara group of the Upper Silurian. The principal localities are at Littleton and Lisbon, at the west base of the White Mountains. The most natural association of these groups is (1) Laurentian, (2) the Montalban, and (3) Huronian,—all of which are Eozoic, with an aggregate thickness of 40,000 feet. Next would follow the Huronian and indeterminate groups, reaching 23,000 feet, all believed to antedate Palaeozoic time. Thirdly there remains the supposed Palaeozoic series, 12,000 feet.

Few parts of the country display better evidences of the existence of an ice age than New Hampshire. No extensive rock exposures can be found that do not exhibit marks of scarification. Even Mount Washington has been striated, and boulders weighing 90 ft> occur there, which have been brought at least a dozen miles and left 3000 feet higher than their source. The prevailing direction of the striae and transportation of fragments was.to the south-east. Local glaciers existed in the decline of the period, leaving well-marked moraines. It was in New Hampshire that the nature of the eskers or kames was first understood in America. A very noted one follows the course of the Connecticut river, from Lyme, N.H., to Windsor, Vt., a distance of 30 miles. The terraces along the Connecticut, the Merrimack, and other rivers are well shown. Careful measurements indicate that they all slope equally with the descent of the river, and resulted from accumulations of detritus pushed forward when the streams were fed by the waters of the melting ice sheet and stood 200 feet or more higher than at present.

Minerals occurring in sufficiently large quantities to be the object of mining are gold, silver, copper, zinc, lead, arsenic, tin, iron, bismuth, manganese, and molybdenum. Articles used for building purposes occurring largely are granite, coloured porphyries for ornamentation, slate, clays for brick, limestone, and soapstone or steatite. Other useful minerals either obtained directly from the rock or capable of special manufacture are quartz and felspar for glass, mica, plumbago, precious stones, whetstones, copperas, alum, pyrites, titanium, polishing powder, moulding sand, and ochres for paints. There are forty extensive quarries of granite in the State. The stone is very fine grained, of a light grey colour, and is used largely for obelisks in cemetries. The mineral beryl is very abundant. Crystals weighing 2900 lb have been described as occurring at Grafton. (C. H. H.)

Population.— The population of New Hampshire in 1880 was 346,991 (170,526 males, 176,465 females)—46,294 being of foreign birth. The growth of the population is shown by the following table :— [table]

The decrease in the decade ending with 1870 was due to the effects of the civil war and to emigration to other States. The latter cause greatly checked the growth of the preceding decade. So constant has it been that 128,505 natives of New Hampshire are resident in other parts of the Union. The density of population is 37'17 to the square mile, but the southern part of the State is more thickly inhabited. The tendency of the population is towards the towns. Of the total increase in the last decade (28,691, of whom 58 per cent, were immigrants), nine towns received 20,649, Manchester alone gaining 9094. Canada supplied the largest number of immigrants (14,979), and Ireland the next (6544). Since 1850 the native population has decreased 2866. The number of families in 1880 was 80,286, and the number of births 6141, one to 56'5 of the inhabitants, and the deaths 5584. The average size of families was 4'32, the smallest average of any State in the Union, though larger than in a few of the new Territories. It is steadily decreasing, having been 4 41 in 1870, 4'72 in 1860, and 5Ί5 in 1850. The decrease in the size of the family has been accompanied by an increase in the number of divorces. The tendency of the State legislation for a number of years was to facilitate divorces; between 1860 and 1870 the number increased (one county not reporting) from 90 to 147, and between 1870 and 1878, in the whole State, from 157 to 240. At the present time public sentiment is setting towards greater stringency of legislation, and has already diminished the number of divorces. The number of paupers in 1880 was 2037.

The cities of largest population in 1880 were—Manchester, 32,630; Concord, the State capital, 13,843; Nashua, 13,397; Dover, 11,687; Portsmouth, 9690; Keene, 6784; Rochester, 5784; Somersworth, 5586-

Manufacl·wres.— The principal industry of New Hampshire is manufacturing. In 1880 the number of establishments was 3181, and the invested capital $51,112,263, giving employment to 45,811 operatives. The total annual product was valued at $73,978,028. The most important manufactures, mentioned in the order of the value of their products, were those of cotton and woollen goods, boots and shoes, leather, lumber, mixed textiles, and worsted goods. Other valuable manufactures are hosiery and knitted goods, paper, foundry and machine-shop products, flouring and grist-mill products, and malt liquors. There is a large annual cut of logs in the northern part of the State. The total horse-power employed in manufacturing was 87,750, of which water furnished 78'81 percent, and steam 21 ’ 19 per cent. Manchester is the chief manufacturing centre, but large mills are built at Dover, Nashua, and Great Falls. The growth of manufactures in New Hampshire has been steady and constant. The first cotton mill was built in 1804. By 1826 there were fifty different buildings for the manufacture of cotton, and about half as many for that of wool. Since 1850 the capital invested in manufacturing has increased nearly 300 per cent., the annual value of materials employed 350 per cent., and the value of products 320 per cent.

Agriculture. — The value of the agricultural productions of the State is about one-fifth of the manufactures. In 1879 it was $13,474,330. The large farms are growing at the expense of small ones. In the decade ending 1880, the average size decreased from 122 to 116 acres. Within that time the farm acreage increased 115,179 acres, but the improved acreage diminished by 26,375 acres. The value of farms and farming implements remained about the same, but there was a general falling off in the quantity and value of farm productions (decrease about $9,000,000, without allowance for change in currency).

Fisheries.— An effort is being made to stock the inland waters of the State with food and game fish. A hatching house is maintained from which thousands of fry (black bass, Schoodic salmon, carp, brook trout, and other fish) are distributed to the ponds and streams. The sea fisheries are of slight importance.

Railroads. — The first railroad charter was granted in 1835. Since then the growth of railroads has kept pace with the development of the State, the present mileage (1051) being greater in proportion to population ana wealth than in the case of any other New England State. The number of persons employed is 2389. The Mount Washington Railway is one of the triumphs of modern engineering. Extending 2∣ miles from the base to the summit of Mount Washington, it makes an ascent of 3625 feet. Its maximum gradient is 1980 feet to the mile, and the sharpest curve has a radius of 497 feet. The peculiarity is a central cog-rail into which plays the cogdriver of the engine, while the weight rests upon two lateral rails.

Finance.— The first bank in New Hampshire was established at Portsmouth in 1792. In 1882 there were under a State charter one bank, with a capital of $50,000, and forty-nine national banks under the National Banking Act. Their capital was $6,080,000; circulation, $5,704,691; surplus, $1,102,631; deposits, $4,859,327 loans and discounts, $8,137,442; dividends (1882), $447,525 (about 7⅜ per cent, on capital). The first savings bank was established in 1823. They now number sixty-five, with deposits of $36,181,186, by 104,432 depositors. In thirty years the depositors have increased by nearly 90,000, and the average deposit from $127 to $372. Every banking company pays annually to the State a tax of ⅜ pet cent, on its actual capital, and the amount thus paid constitutes a ‘ ‘ literary fund” for the support of schools. All are under the supervision of two bank commissioners, whose duty it is to inspect the accounts and securities of each bank at least once each year, and who have power to petition the supreme court against any bank which they think unsound. In 1880 the valuation of the State was $122,733,124 for real estate, and $42,022,057 for personal property. The taxes assessed by the State were $395,372, and the local taxes amounted to $2,302,268 (about $7 '75 per head). The net State debt was $3,561,200, and the local debt $7,162,970, or taken together about $31 per head.

Religion and Education.— The largest religious denomination is the Congregationalist, which has 188 churches, 179 ministers, 20,039 members, and 21,948 in its Sabbath schools. The Methodists have 119 churches, 107 pastors and 63 local preachers, 12,100 members and 1362 probationers, and 13,509 Sabbath school scholars. The Baptists have 80 churches, 90 ministers and 7 licentiates, and 8932 members. The Episcopalians have 28 churches, 32 ministers, and 2062 communicants. The Free-will Baptists have an organization, and there are two societies of Shakers. New Hampshire has always fostered education. In earlier colonial times, when it was united with Massachusetts, the same laws applied to both, and on becoming a distinct province it placed on its statute book the Massachusetts law requiring townships of 50 householders to provide instruction for their children, and those of 100 householders to set up a grammar school. This law, with slight changes designed to render it more effective, remained in force till after the Revolution. The State constitution, adopted in 1784, contained a clause, still in force, making it the duty of “legislators and magistrates to cherish the interests of literature and the sciences, and all seminaries and public schools.” In 1789 the school laws were revised, and towns required to raise for school purposes £4 for every 20s. of their several apportionment of the State tax. This requisition has been gradually increased, until now it is $350 for each dollar of the apportionment. In 1805 the towns were authorized to divide into districts, and each district was directed to maintain a school. This system, with modifications, is still in force. Towns are now authorized to abolish districts and form central schools, and to grade them when the attendance exceeds fifty. High schools may be established when there are not less than one hundred school children between the ages of six and sixteen. In 1829 the “literary fund” was divided among the towns according to the apportionment of the State tax for the support of ‘ ‘ common free schools, or for other purposes of education.” To the tax on bank capital is added one on the savings banks deposits of non-residents. In 1881 it was $26,584. The general supervision and control of the educational interests of the State are committed to a superintendent of public instruction appointed by the governor. The immediate charge of all schools is given to local boards of education or committees, which, within the requirements of the law, have complete authority to engage teachers and fix their compensation, to regulate the studies and discipline of...

The central and older portion of the city is laid out in regular squares, surrounding a public green of 16 acres, on which stand the three oldest churches and a building formerly used as a State-house; the abundance and beauty of the elms planted about this square and along many of the streets has caused the place to be familiarly known as the “Elm City.” On the squares bordering upon this central park are the interesting grounds and buildings of Yale College, the city-hall and county court-house, the post-office and custom-house, and several churches. The college buildings include six dormitories (accommodating about 400) for the undergraduate academical department, which contains 620 students, under 36 instructors; and there are thirteen buildings for recitation rooms, laboratories, museums, library, &c. The handsome buildings of the theological department are in the immediate vicinity. Other public buildings are—the general hospital and training school for nurses, an armoury, the orphan asylum, the almshouse, the county prison, the halls of the Sheffield Scientific School, the college observatory, and the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. The finest private residences are in the section of the city north of the central square. There are ten smaller squares within the town limits, and two private parks, of 55 and 30 acres respectively, the smaller being the college athletic grounds. A beautiful park of 352 acres (partly in an adjoining town) was opened in 1881; it lies 2 miles to the north-east of the city green. The public buildings include sixty-one places of worship, of which nineteen belong to the ∙Congregationalists, the only denomination in the town for a century after its settlement; twelve to the Methodists, first organized here in 1795; eleven to the Protestant Episcopal Church, first organized about 1736; seven to the Baptists, who formed a church here in 1816; and seven to the Roman Catholics, whose first church was erected in 1834. There are thirty-six public schools; the expenditure for their maintenance was $368,000 in 1882-83. Twenty-nine schoolhouses owned by the town, with their furniture and grounds, represent an outlay of about $675,000. There are also about twenty private schools, the oldest being the Hopkins Grammar School, founded in 1660.

The harbour, which originally determined the site of the city, and has always been a large factor in its prosperity, is large and safe, though shallow, and is under improvement by the construction of a costly breakwater. Long Wharf, begun in 1682, is 3480 feet in length, the longest pier in the United States. Natural oyster-beds formerly abounded in the harbour and its tributary streams; and extensive beds are still maintained by planting, which give l<>"ge returns, and make New Haven the chief centre of the important oyster trade of Connecticut. The harbour is still more valuable in its relation to the extensive manufacturing industries of the vicinity. Within a radius of 20 miles not less than $50,000,000 is employed in the manufacture of hardware, carriages, arms, and wire. For this New Haven is the commercial centre, and through its port there annually passes merchandise (largely coal and iron) valued at $175,000,000. The foreign trade is chiefly with the West India Islands and Demerara, and its prosperity dates from the latter part of the 18th century. The exports in the thirty-six vessels employed in this branch of trade in 1882 (breadstuff's and live stock) were valued at $3,150,000, the imports (sugar and molasses) at $6,281,000; it should, however, be noted that three-fourths of these imports and exports enter and leave the port of New York, although the capital and management of the trade remain in New Haven. The estimated total value of foreign importations received (in 84 vessels of 18,126 tons) at the port in the year ending June 1883 was $1,155,883, the chief articles being sugar and molasses, salt from the West Indies and Spain (about $100,000), and paper-rags from Alexandria. The value of the foreign exports for the same period, in 42 vessels of 7228 tons, was $670,046, the largest item being the shipments of the Winchester Repeating Anns Company. For the same year the estimated value of cargoes received from domestic ports (in 2200 steam vessels and 4125 sailing vessels and barges) was $93,963,900. Of these receipts the largest items were—iron, valued at $2,000,000; lumber, $3,000,000, twice as much more being received by railroad; and coal (a rapidly increasing business of recent growth), $3,750,000. The value of shipments to domestiè ports was $74,812,000.

In the production of carriages and carriage trimmings, New Haven, which is the chief seat of the trade in New England, employs a capital of perhaps 1⅛ millions dollars; nearly 2000 workmen receive annual wages of about $750,000; and the estimated value of the yearly product is $2,240,000. Another important industry is represented by the Winchester Repeating Arms Company, which, with a capital of $1,000,000, employs 1200 hands, and does a business in sporting guns and ammunition of about $2,500,000 a year. Another noticeable manufacture is that of superior blotting paper from cotton waste; blotting paper was made here for the first time in America in 1856. The other principal manufactures are locks, rubber, clocks, organs, corsets, fish-lines, and. paper boxes. There are nine banks of deposit, with an aggregate capital of §4,664,000, and a circulation of §3,038,940; also three savings banks, with deposits of about §9,000,000. About §225,000 is annually paid in New Haven in fire insurance premiums, for the protection of property valued at upwards of §25,000,000.

New Haven (Indian name Quinnipiac, meaning “long-water land ”) was settled in 1638 by nearly three hundred English emigrants of more than the average wealth and business ability, led by John Davenport and Theophilus Eaton, with the design of founding a commercial colony to be governed by the laws of the Bible. Davenport, an Oxford graduate, and for fourteen years a minister in London, became the pastor of the New Haven church; and Eaton, a successful London merchant, was the first governor of the colony which grew up about the town. The colony (of the same name) included five other towns, and remained independent until merged, by a charter of Charles II. in 1662, in the older colony of Connecticut; this result was largely due to the waning prosperity of New Haven (in contrast with Connecticut), and to the prejudice against its more rigidly Puritan tone, as shown, for instance, in its code of laws, and in such incidents as the shelter given to Whalley and Goffe, two of the regicide judges. In recognition of its former standing, the sessions of the legislature were held alternately here and in Hartford (the original capital of Connecticut) from 1701 to 1874. From the original territory of the town (about 13 by 18 miles) ten new towns have been wholly or partly taken. New Haven was from the beginning distinguished for its care of public education,—a free school being ordered to be set up as early as 1641, and the establishment of a college being contemplated in 1648. In 1716 Yale College was removed from Saybrook to New Haven, which had then somewhat under a thousand inhabitants. A period of quiet and regular growth ensued. In 1754 a printing press was set up, and in 1755 the first newspaper published in Connecticut appeared here. There are now six daily and six weekly papers, besides several college periodicals, The American Journal of Science, founded in 1818 by Professor Silliman, and another review {The New Englander). The Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, incorporated in 1799, and the American Oriental Society, have their libraries here, and publish valuable transactions. In the American Revolution the town favoured resistance to the British Government, and in 1779 was invaded by a detachment of about 3000 British troops, under General Tyron. In 1784 New Haven received a city charter (the earliest in the State), the territory incorporated having then a population of about 3350. With the close of the Revolutionary War commerce revived and expanded; and after the war of 1812 manufactures were introduced.

The population numbered in 1790, 4510; in 1800, 5157; in 1810, 6967; in 1820, 8327; in 1830, 10,678; in 1840, 14,396; in 1850, 22,529; in 1860, 39,267; in 1870, 50,840; and in 1880, 62,882, of whom 15,668 were born in foreign countries. The city was in 1880 the third place (next to Boston and Providence) in size in New England, and the twenty-sixth in the United States. Since 1880 new territory has been annexed, and the population is estimated in 1883 at nearly 74,000. The real and personal estate of the inhabitants was in 1882 valued at §48,335,632 (real estate 34 millions, personalty 14 millions). The net indebtedness of the city (principally contracted in building sewers) was §631,907 at the close of 1882; there was also a debt contracted by the town government of §941,637. The amount appropriated to meet the city expenses for 1883 was §559,435. The city is divided into twelve wards, and is governed by a mayor and twenty-four aidermen (twelve elected yearly) and thirty-six councilmen. The town affairs are controlled by a separate board of seven select men.

For the history of the town see Bacon, Thirteen Historical Discourses, 1839; Atwater, History of the Colony of New Haven, 1881; Papers of the New Haven Colony Historical Society, 3 vols., 1865-82.

No land mammals are known except the rat and Pteropidae. Birds (species) are less numerous than in the Solomon Islands. Pigeons, parrots, ducks, and swallows are common, and a Megapodius is found. Of fish more than one hundred kinds are known, mostly inferior as food, and some poisonous. Whales and bêche-de-mer abound and are fished for. There are two kinds of serpents (harmless), three or four lizards, and two turtles; locusts, grasshoppers, butterflies, and hornets are numerous.

The population is perhaps 50,000. Isolated Polynesian communities occur on the smaller islands; and on Vaté—and perhaps also on Santa Cruz and Vanua La vu—there is an infusion of Polynesian blood, producing a taller, fairer, and less savage population. The people, however, vary on every island. At Aneiteum they are all Christians, and this influence predominates in the neighbouring southern islands of the group; on Vaté and Tanna, too, there are European factories (cotton and copra), but the population is dwindling rapidly. Motu, in the Santa Cruz group, was the late Bishop Patteson’s principal island station. The general type is an ugly one: below the middle height, fairer than the typical Papuan, with low receding foreheads, broad faces, and flat noses. They wear nose-and ear-rings and bracelets of shells, and frequently nothing else. The men, but not the women, drink kava. They are constantly fighting; their weapons are bows and arrows, often beautifully designed, clubs of elaborate patterns, spears, and latterly muskets. Their houses are either the round huts described by Mendana three hundred years ago, or rectangular with pitched roofs resting on three parallel rows of posts; in Vate the reception houses are adorned with festoons of bones and shells. In Aurora the roof is set directly on the ground, with a square doorway 2 feet high in a deep gable at the end. The villages are scrupulously clean and neat, and ornamented with flowering shrubs, crotons, and dracaenas. .

In character the people differ in different islands, but much of their inhospitality and savagery, disastrously shown in the murder of several missionaries, Bishop Patteson, and Captain Goodenough, is traced to the misconduct and cruelty of traders and labour agents, or to revenge for the introduction of epidemic diseases. In some islands there is the objection also found among Malays to mention their names, or as in Australia the name of the mother-, sister-, and daughter-in-law. They are inveterate cannibals, with a few exceptions, as at Santa Cruz and Banks’s Islands (North New Hebrides). They believe much in sorceries and omens; but prayer and offerings (usually of shell money) are addressed mainly to the spirits of the (recently) dead, and there is another class of spirits, called Vui, who are appealed to when incorporate in certain stones or animals; of one or two such the divinity is recognized generally. By the villages a space shadowed by a great banyan tree is often set apart for dances and public meetings. A certain sacredness attaches also sometimes to the Casuarina and the Cycas. An important institution is the club-house, in which there are various grades, whereon a man’s rank and influence mainly depend, his grade being recognized even if he goes to another island where his language is unintelligible. In like manner a division into two great exogamous groups prevails, at all events throughout the northern islands. It would therefore seem that the present diversity of languages in the group must be of relatively recent origin. These languages or dialects are numerous, and mutually unintelligible, but alike as to grammatical construction, and belonging to the Melanesian class.

Principal Authorities.— Lieut. A. H. Markham, R.N., in Roy. Geog. Soc. Jour., 1872; Brenchley, Cruise of the Curaςoa i ,∖ Rev. R. H. Codrington, “On Religious Beliefs and Practices in Melanesia,” in Jour, ∆nthrop. Inst., vol. x.; Walter Coote, Wanderings South and East.

The ridges of the Appalachian chain in New Jersey may be grouped in two main ranges—the Blue or Kittatinny Mountains and the Highland range. The first of these is an almost unbroken ridge from the New York State line to the Delaware Water Gap, and is the highest ground in the State, being at the Water Gap 1479 feet above the sea, and at High Point, near the New York line, 1800 feet high. Its level crest is clothed with forests, but the slopes are to a great extent cultivated. The Highland range, on the other hand, consists of a number of detached ridges, the highest of which is 1488 feet above the sea. These vary greatly in their surfaces; many admit of cultivation to the summit, while others are so covered with loose stones or bare rock that cultivation is impossible. The mineral wealth of the range is considerable.

The Red Sandstone central region is traversed by a number of irregularly distributed trap dykes, which are rough and wooded, and rise in the midst of a rich and productive district. These vary much in elevation, the highest being 868 feet. In southern New Jersey there are no rocky eminences or elevations worthy of the name of mountains. Its rounded hills are all earthy, and the results of denudation or erosion; the most elevated—the Navesink highlands— are about 400 feet high.

The southern half of the State is a great plain, sloping gently from its centre towards the Atlantic and the

Delaware, and has been eroded in the Drift period. It contains tracts of gravelly loam largely used for market gardens and vineyards. Extensive tidal marshes border the Atlantic and Delaware Bay, to the extent of nearly 300,000 acres. The Delaware river and bay receive all streams flowing from the western half of the State; the Passaic and Raritan are the most considerable rivers entirely within New Jersey.. In the north-western part are many beautiful lakes abounding with fish; the largest is Lake Hopatcong, 5⅜ miles long by 4∣ to 1∣ miles wide.

Geology and Minerals.— Nearly all the geological periods, except the Coal-measures, are represented in the State. It may be stated in a general way that all the stratified formations cross the State from north-east to south-west; that the Highland range, to which they run parallel, is made up of the oldest rocks in the State; that almost all of the Palaeozoic rocks, which are next in order, lie on the north-west side of these mountains; that the Triassic rocks lie next to the mountains on the south-east; and that the Tertiary and recent formations are then found in succession towards the south-east. The Azoic rocks occur mainly in the Highland range, and here consist chiefly of syenitic gneiss and white crystalline limestone, the former greatly predominating. This limestone is found chiefly on the north-west border of the gneiss, interstratified with and conformable to it. Magnetic iron ore abounds here, and occurs in beds or veins interposed between the strata of the gneiss. New mines are constantly being discovered, and the supply seems inexhaustible. Graphite is also found and worked. Valuable deposits of zinc ore occur in the crystalline limestone, and large quantities of excellent lime are made from this rock. The Potsdam limestone is found in comparatively small quantities, always near the borders of the gneiss and limestone. Magnesian limestone, found between the Highland range and Kittatinny Mountains, is extensively used for making lime, and contains haematite iron ore. Hudson River slate (used for roofing and flagging) exists most largely on the south-east slope of the Kittatinny Mountains. Water lime and Lower Helderberg limestone, which produce the Rosendale cements, are found in quantity along the north-west foot of the Kittatinny. Red sandstones and shales underlie the region immediately south-east of the Highland range, extending from the Hudson to the Delaware. They are in regular layers, dipping gently to the northwest, and form an excellent building material. Copper occurs in this formation, and was worked at an early period. To the south-east of the Sandstone formation follow plastic and fire clays, due to the decomposition of a ridge of granite which once formed the eastern edge of the Red Sandstone valley; these furnish clays of the purest and most refractory kind, suitable for fire-brick; very pure quartz sand is also found here, to mix with the clay, and kaolin, although not yet of the best quality. The greensand, marl, and sand beds occupy a belt some 90 miles long extending from Sandy Hook to the Delaware near Salem. This formation consists of three distinct beds of greensand, each from 12 to 25 feet thick, separated by beds of sand. The marl is clearly of marine origin, containing sea shells, bits of coral, sharks’ teeth, saurian bones, <fcc., and makes a good manure. Glassmakers’ sand is worked in the southern part of the State. Along the shore is an elevation of only 5 to 10 feet above the sealevel, having good alluvial soil, which must within a comparatively recent period have been beneath the sea. Since the first settlement of the country, however, the shore has washed away, and there is good reason to believe that a very gradual subsidence is now taking place. The entire sea-coast is rapidly becoming a continuous line of summer resorts, among which may be enumerated Long Branch, Sea Bright, Spring Lake, and Asbury Park in the northern portion, Atlantic City in the centre, and Cape May in the south. Some of these places, as Atlantic City, are frequented even during the winter months.

Commerce and Industry.— Although only the thirty-fifth among the thirty-eight States in area, it is the nineteenth in population, the eighth in the value of property, and twenty-fifth in value of agricultural products, the sixth in manufacturing and mechanical industries, while in some industries, as silk, pottery, and glass, it far exceeds any other State. The output of the non-precious minerals places it seventh in the list of States, it being the fourth among the iron-producing States, and first as to zinc ore. It has 1869 miles of railways, or 1 mile to every 4’25 square miles of area, exceeded in this by only one State. The average value of farming lands is considerably above that of any other State. In 1880 the total number of farms was 34,307, averaging 85 acres, or a total of 2,929,773 acres of farm lands, of which 24 ’ 4 per cent, were unimproved. The value of farm lands was §190,895,833; farming implements and machinery, §6,921,085; live stock, §14,861,412; all farm products, §29,650,756. Among the principal products were—Indian corn, 11,150,705 bushels; oats, 3,710,573; rye, 949,064; wheat, 1,901,739; hay, 518,990 tons; Irish potatoes, 3,563,793 bushels; sweet potatoes, 2,086,731 bushels; 86,940 horses; 9267 mulesand asses; 152,078 milch cows; 71,808 other cattle; 117,020 sheep; 219,069 swine; 9,513,835 butter; 15,472,783 gallons milk.

Omitting fishery products, gas, petroleum, refining, mining, and quarrying, the following table gives the general condition of the manufacturing interests of the State in the year’s mentioned :— [table]

Among the most important interests for 1880 are those given in the following table :— [table]

Population.— The population of the State was 211,149 in 1800, 277,426 in 1820, 373,306 in 1840, 672,035 in 1860, 906,096 in

1870, and 1,131,116 in 1880. The census of 1880 showed 559,922 males and 571,194 females, 1,092,017 white, 38,853 coloured, 172 Chinese, and 74 Indians. The inhabitants of foreign birth numbered 221,700. To every square mile of area there were 151’73 inhabitants, the State being the third in the Union in respect of density of population.

The largest cities, with population in 1880, are—Newark, 136,508; Jersey City, 120,722; Paterson, 51,031; Camden, 41,659; Hoboken, 30,999; Trenton (the State capital), 29,910; Elizabeth, 28,229; New Brunswick, 17,166; Orange, 13,207.

Government.— The executive power is vested in a governor elected by the people for a term of three years; no one can serve in this capacity two successive terms. The legislative power is in the legislature, composed of a senate and general assembly meeting on the second Tuesday of January each year at Trenton, the capital of the State. A senator is elected for three years by each of the twenty-one counties, one-third of the whole number being elected each year. The assembly consists of not more than sixty members, elected for one year, and apportioned among the counties as nearly as may be according to the number of their inhabitants, with the condition, however, that each county shall at all times be entitled to one member. The principal officers of the State are a secretary of state, attorney-general, adjutant-general, and quartermaster-general, all appointed by the governor and confirmed by the senate, and a treasurer and comptroller appointed by the legislature in joint meeting. All judges and prosecutors of the pleas are appointed by the governor and confirmed by the senate; the election system for the judiciary has not yet reached New Jersey.

The judicial power is vested in (1) a court of errors and appeals in the last resort, consisting of the chancellor, the justices of the supreme court, and six judges of the court of errors; (2) a court for the trial of impeachments, consisting of the senate; (3) a court of chancery, consisting of the chancellor and two vice-chancellors; (4) a supreme court, consisting of the chief justice and eight associate justices; (5) circuit courts, held in every county by the justices of the supreme court; (6) an inferior court of the common pleas organized in each county, and consisting of three judges. In some of the sparsely settled counties the inferior courts are presided over by justices of the supreme court; in the other counties one of the three judges is a law judge and presides. The court of pardon consists of the governor, the chancellor, and the six lay judges of the court of errors; a majority of this court, of whom the governor must be one, can remit fines and forfeitures, and grant pardons, after conviction in all cases except impeachments.

State Institutions.— There are two lunatic asylums,—one near Trenton containing more than 600 patients, the other near Morristown capable of accommodating 800; the latter is probably unsurpassed by any similar institution; there are also seven county asylums containing 746 patients. An institution for the deaf and dumb, to contain 125 pupils, has been recently established at Trenton; the blind and feeble-minded are placed in suitable establishments in neighbouring States. The home for disabled soldiers, at Newark, accommodates nearly 400 men. The State prison at Trenton contains some 800 convicts, a large part of whom are employed in contract labour to an extent which pays about 54 per cent, of the cost of the institution. A reformatory school for boys, near Jamesburg, contains about 325 juvenile delinquents. An industrial school for girls, near Trenton, has 30 inmates. The board of health is steadily gaining in importance, and has accomplished much good in spreading useful information, collecting important vital and health statistics, and investigating matters affecting the public health. The labour bureau has done good service in collecting statistics affecting the questions of labour and capital, in bringing about a better understanding between the two, and in indicating new and profitable avenues for industry. The geological survey, of which the geodetic and topographical surveys have necessarily formed part, now approaching its close, is one of the most useful of the State institutions.

Education.— The Agricultural College, attached to Rutgers College at New Brunswick, is supported by the proceeds of certain public lands given by the United States to the State for that purpose. In connexion with this are the college farm and the agricultural experiment stations, which are doing admirable work in systematic and carefully conducted experiments (under the chief of the geological survey) with various fertilizers, and in testing various soils, crops, and methods of agriculture. The public schools are mainly supported by a State tax of §4 for each child between five and eighteen years of age, amounting in 1882 to§l,322,740, supplemented by an annual appropriation of §100,000 from the school fund, which latter now amounts to more than §3,375,000, and is rapidly increasing. Small additional special taxes are also levied in some of the school districts. A normal school has been in successful operation at Trenton for several years, and has nearly 250 pupils. The college of New Jersey at Princeton, and its sister theological seminary, although not State institutions, occupy places in the very front rank of American schools of learning.

Finance.— The only State debt is that known as the war debt, amounting at present to less than $1,700,000, and paid off at the rate of $100,000 per annum. The sinking fund for the redemption of this debt is valued at something more than $1,100,000. Independently of the general State school tax the receipts and expenditures for 1882 were $1,104,303’75, distributed as follows:—interest on debt, $90,000; charitable and reformatory, $269,793’19; courts, crimes, &c., $274,025’82; State government, $158,171’04; scientific, sanitary, &c., $47,880’49; military, $70,692’22; educational, $33,983’61; publication, $105,225’47; miscellaneous, $54,531’91. It will thus be seen that the State expended for educational purposes $1,356,723’61, as against $1,070,320’14 for other purposes.

History.— The first settlement within the present State was made in 1617 by the Dutch at Bergen opposite New York. Subsequently Cornelius May, who discovered the Delaware in 1623, built a fort on its banks opposite Philadelphia. During the early colonial period the region was the scene of many petty struggles arising out of the rival efforts of the Dutch, Swedes, and English to establish trading posts and settlements on the river. The Indians among whom these early settlers were thrown were generally divided into small tribes; but in the valley of the upper Delaware were the principal and most populous seats of the Leni Lenape—known by the English as the Delawares, a name still retained by the remnants of this most interesting and once powerful tribe in their new homes west of the Mississippi. On the whole the early intercourse between the whites and Indians was peaceful, but there were occasional collisions, some of a serious nature, too often brought about by the rapacity and bad faith of the whites. As a rule the title to the Indian lands was purchased, and after the province fell into the hands of the English the general policy pursued was one of humanity and good faith. At the time of the English accession it is estimated that the Indians in New Jersey numbered about 2000.

When Charles II. wrested their North American possessions from the Dutch—in fact before this was accomplished—he granted them in bulk to his brother the duke of York, who in turn granted what is now New Jersey to Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, the conveyance (June 23, 1664) providing that “the said tract of land is to be called Nova Caesarea, or New Jersey.” The royal grant was of the proprietary character, that is, it not only conveyed the absolute estate and title to the land, but also the power to govern and rule, and therefore to establish such laws as “might be thought necessary, provided they were not contrary to but, as near as conveniently might be, agreeable to the laws, statutes, and government of the realm of England.” As all these rights and powers were assignable, the duke transferred to Berkeley and Carteret, not only the lands, but also the power to govern; and they in turn possessed, and finally exercised, the power to assign to others both land and power to govern. A form of government was accordingly established in a “concession and agreement” issued by them. The governor was appointed by the proprietors, and he appointed a council of from six to twelve members; the governor and council united formed the executive. The freeholders of the province elected not less than twelve representatives, who, with the governor and council, composed the general assembly, in whom rested the legislative power, limited only by the terms of the “concession,” especially the article securing entire liberty of conscience. The general assembly established the courts of justice, and took all measures necessary to preserve order and provide for the general defence; they regulated commerce, and determined the time and duration of their own sessions; they possessed the entire power of taxation, and it was required that the executive should neither impose nor suffer to be imposed any tax other than those imposed by the general assembly. The right of petition to the lords proprietors was secured to the freeholders. The first governor was Philip Carteret, a brother of Sir George, who arrived with a number of “adventurers” in August 1665, and established himself at Elizabethtown. Upon the capture of New Amsterdam by the English, their commander, Colonel Nichols, assumed the administration of the entire territory in the name of the duke of York. Ignorant of the grant to Berkeley and Carteret, Nichols at once offered inducements to settlers from New England and Long Island to move into New Jersey, advising them to purchase the Indian titles, and promising immunity from ground rents. In consequence of this promise, which occurred before Carteret’s arrival, serious difficulties afterwards arose.

The first general assembly met at Elizabeth, May 26, 1668; another session was held during the same year, but none other for seven years thereafter. In 1672 New Amsterdam and New Jersey were reconquered by the Dutch, but early in 1673 they reverted to England. Doubts arising as to the effect of the reconquest upon the validity of the original grant, the duke of York obtained a new grant from the king, and renewed his own to Berkeley and Carteret. Prior to this renewal the two proprietors had agreed to a division of their interests, and in the new grant the portion assigned to Carteret was the region east of a line drawn from

Barnegat Creek to the Rancoeus; to Berkeley was assigned the territory west of that line. In 1676, however, the line of separation was changed by the owners, so that it extended from Little Egg Harbour to a point on the Delaware in 40° N. lat.; this remained thereafter the boundary between East and West Jersey.

Immediately after the reconquest Philip Carteret returned to East Jersey as its governor, and on his arrival in 1674 presented a new charter, less liberal in many respects than the original. Berkeley meanwhile sold West Jersey to a firm of Quakers, who at once proceeded to colonize it, establishing their first settlement at Salem in 1675, and another shortly after at Burlington. For some years great annoyance was experienced both in East and West Jersey from the unjust interference of the governor of New York, and of the duke himself, with their internal affairs; these attempts were always met by a firm and spirited resistance, which eventually triumphed. In 1682, soon after Sir* George Carteret’s death, a society of Quakers under the lead of William Penn, encouraged by their success in West Jersey, purchased from his heirs their righ⅛ to East Jersey. It will give some idea of the progress already made to state that at this early period (1682) a smelting furnace and forge were in operation in New Jersey, making good iron, and that contemporary documents show that at the same date there were exported “great plenty of horses, beef, pork, pipe-staves, boards, bread, flour, wheat, barley, rye, Indian corn, butter, and cheese to Barbados, Jamaica, and other adjacent islands, as also to Portugal, Spain, the Canaries, &c.; whale oil, whale fins, beaver, mink, raccoon, and martin furs to England.”

Towards the close of the 17th century the number...

Physical Features.— The whole area is elevated far above the ocean, the table-lands of the north being 6000 to 6500, those of the centre 5000, and those of the south about 4000 feet above sea-level. The fall in the Rio Grande from the Colorado line to that of Mexico is about 3500 feet. The whole except the eastern portion is traversed by mountains, passing from north to south, not continuously but in broken ranges, which, for convenience of description, may be divided into three parts. The main range of the Rocky Mountains enters the Territory from the north, the highest peaks being the Costilla (12,615 feet), Taos, Mora (12,020), Truchas (13,150), and Baldy (12,661). This range disappears as a continuous chain near Glorieta. Running east from this as a kind of spur along the Colorado line are the Raton Mountains, the pass in which, south of Trinidad, is 7893 feet high. The railroad crosses this range through a tunnel. Commencing about 20 miles south of Santa Fé, and extending southwards on the east side of the Rio Grande, is a broken range, known variously in localities from north to south as the Cerrillos, Placer, Sandia, Chilili, Manzana, Jumanes, Oscura, San Andres, and Organ Mountains,—the last-named crossing into Mexico near El Paso. Nearer to the Rio Grande in Socorro county are the Fra Cristobal and Caballo Mountains. East of the above chain is a series of ranges, generally short, locally known as the Gallinas, Jicarilla, Carrizo, Capitan, Sierra Blanca, Sacramento, Hueco, and Guadalupe Mountains. On the west of the Rio Grande another broken range runs south, commencing at the singularly conspicuous San Antonio mountain, close to the Colorado line, and known in its several parts as the Petaca, Valles, Nacimiento, Jemez, San Mateo, Ladrones, Oso, Madalena, Socorro, San Mateo (of Socorro), Black Range, Mimbres, and Florida Mountains, the latter extending into Mexico. Still farther to the west, and near the Arizona boundary, yet another series of comparatively short ranges is found, consisting of the Carrizo, Tunicha, and Chusca Mountains, which constitute part of the “great continental divide” separating the waters flowing into the Gulf of Mexico from those running into the Pacific, and more to the south the Zuni, Datil, San Francisco, Escudilla, Tulerosa, Luera, Mogollon, Diablo, Pinos Altos, Burro, Sarampion, Hacha, Perro, Animas, and Peloncillo Mountains. These mountains are seamed with great “canons,” which also penetrate the larger “mesas” or table-lands in various places, where in some way the covering of lava which is their usual protection has been removed. Between contiguous ranges or spurs of the same range are frequently found “parks” of great beauty and fertility. These specially abound in the western part of Colfax county.

New Mexico, while generally requiring irrigation for its cultivation, is more fully provided with rivers than any of the other mining States or Territories. Its waters flow east to the Mississippi, south to the Gulf of Mexico, and west through the Colorado and Gila to the Gulf of California and the Pacific Ocean. The Rio Grande, called also the Rio Bravo del Norte, passes completely through the centre of the Territory from north to south. It receives many tributaries, the principal being the Santa Fé and Galisteo from the east, and the Chama, Jemez, Puerco, and Alamosa from the west. Its valley is of great fertility, and capable of supporting a large population. The northeastern part of the Territory, including the greater part of the counties of Colfax, Mora, and San Miguel, is drained by the Canadian or Red River, which flows into the Arkansas. The branches of this stream are very numerous, the principal ones being the Cimarron, Mora, Concha, Pajarito, and Ute. The Pecos rises north-east of Santa Fé, and, flowing south, gives value to a vast belt of land, until it crosses the Texas line and finally joins the Rio Grande itself. Its valley is unsurpassed for fertility and agricultural worth. Among other streams, the Tecolote, Gallinas, Hondo, and Penasco are tributaries to it. In the north-west is the Rio San Juan, from which that whole section is called the “San Juan country.” It flows west to the Great Colorado, and has as its principal branches in New Mexico the Animas from the north and the Chaco from the south. In the central west are the headwaters of the Little Colorado, and in the south-west those of the Gila, with the Mimbres, which flows south into Mexico.

Minerals.— In almost all parts of the Territory, except the pastoral plains, the precious metals are found, the mineral extending from the extreme north to the southern boundary. The eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, in Colfax county, abounds in gold, and Elizabethtown, its chief village, was the scene of great mining prosperity a few years ago. The metal is found in “leads” as well as in extensive “placers.” On the opposite side of the range are x both gold and silver, and a little farther south, near Picuris, are large deposits of copper. Travelling southwards we find various minerals of value in the mountains east of Santa Fé; and the Cerrillos mining district, about 20 miles south of the capital, presents a rich deposit of silver not as yet fully developed. Here also are the famous turquoise mines, the largest in America, which played so important a part in the early history of the Territory. To the west in the Nacimiento region is a great body of copper. At the “Old Placers” and “New Placers,” in the southern extremity of Santa Fé county, are inexhaustible supplies of placer gold, which were washed for many years by the rude methods of former times, but work here has been suspended pending the completion of extensive works now in progress which will provide a sufficient supply of water for large operations. The Manzana, Ladrone, and Madalena ranges, and, indeed, nearly all the mountains on both sides of the Rio Grande, contain rich mineral. Silver mines of great value are worked in the Socorro Mountains, directly west of the city of that name. The Black Range country is rich in silver and copper; and the more recent discoveries on the Percha river and at Lake Valley promise to be of extraordinary richness and extent. The vicinity of White Oaks in Lincoln county is specially noted for its free gold, and the San Andres, Caballo, and. Organ ranges abound in valuable ores. The greatest development has taken place in Grant county, whose “Santa Rita,” “Hanover,” and other copper mines are well known; the vicinity of Silver City and Georgetown produce great quantities of silver, while the newer districts in the south-west, in the vicinity of Shakespeare and Lordsburg, ⅞j∙e also rich in the last-mentioned metal. To the north of Silver City are the Mogollon Mountains, where valuable mineral deposits are found. The mines, especially those of silver, were extensively worked by the Spaniards down to the year 1680, when the revolt of the Pueblos, caused by the cruel slavery to which they were reduced in working for the precious metals, resulted in the filling up and concealment of every mine in the country during the thirteen years of Pueblo control. The shafts of these mines are frequently discovered. Development in recent times has been greatly retarded by Indian occupancy in some sections and their incursions into others; but now that these difficulties have ceased it is very rapidly progressing.

Bituminous coal is found in inexhaustible quantities in very many sections of the Territory, notably near Raton in Colfax county, along the Galisteo river on the line of the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad, and near the Chama river in the north-west. Anthracite coal of an exceedingly fine quality exists in large amounts near Cerrillos station, being superior to many of the coals of Pennsylvania, and by ; far the best fuel thus far discovered west of the Mississippi river. Iron is found in many localities, but has not yet been worked, the more valuable metals monopolizing attention. Mica mines of large extent and excellent quality are at Petaca, Mora, near Nambé, and in other localities. Lead abounds in many sections carrying silver, and notably in the Cerrillos mines. Plumbago is found in Colfax county; and cement of a very superior quality is made at Springer. Gypsum, fire-clay, and mineral paints are among the mineral resources of the Territory; and marbles and other excellent building stones abound.

Mineral springs of various kinds of great excellence are found in difierent localities. Prominent among them are the Las Vegas hot springs, the Ojo Caliente in Taos county, the Jemez hot springs, and the Hudson springs. These all have special medicinal qualities, and are of high temperature, the Ojo Caliente water being of 114° and the Jemez 168°. There are also important springs south of El Rancho in Taos county and east of Santa Fé.

Climate.— The climate is dry and the air clear throughout almost the entire year. The temperature at Santa Fé, which is considered to have the best climate in the Territory, is sometimes as low in the winter as at New York, but the dryness of the atmosphere prevents the cold from being felt to anything like the same extent. The more southerly towns are of course warmer, not only on account of the difference in latitude, but also because of their decreased altitude. The rainy season occupies about a month, varying in time from the middle of July to the middle of September, but even then a wholly cloudy day is seldom seen, the mornings being bright, with showers in the afternoon. The comparative death-rate from tubercular diseases in New Mexico is less than anywhere else in the United States, the proportions being—New England 25, Minnesota 14, Southern States 6, New Mexico 3. The average rainfall at Santa Fé for eight years (1874-81) was a little less than 14∣ inches, whereas the average at New York was 43, Boston 45, Philadelphia 44, Washington 37, St Louis 42, and Savannah 48. The mean temperature was 48J o . The atmosphere is so clear and pure as to be proverbial. From the first characteristic arises the deception as to distances so generally experienced by strangers; and the second is evidenced by the fact that everywhere throughout the Territory the natives hang up their meat out-of-doors to dry, and use pieces of it as required, not the slightest taint arising from it during a series of months.

Agriculture, die.— The greater portion of New Mexico is pastoral, being unfitted for agriculture from lack of water for irrigation. Wherever there is sufficient water either in streams or springs to supply the wants of animals, the grass is amply sufficient to support either cattle or sheep. The Territory abounds in the most nutritious grasses, which retain their virtues during the winter; and the climate is such that shelter is not required other than that afforded by nature, in valleys and woods. ' The number of sheep is variously estimated from 7,000,000 to 10,000,000, and they are raised in every county. Within the past few years the breed has been much improved by the introduction of merino, Cotswold, and •other fine-woolled varieties. The cattle business has reached enormous proportions within a few years, and is steadily advancing in importance. The immense profits received have induced the investment of large amounts of capital, and all the desirable ranches are being rapidly taken up and stocked. The business is changing in its character in two ways. Large corporations are taking the place of small owners, and, instead of ranging over the plains, the cattle are now generally confined to tracts exclusively owned or occupied, and fenced. Colfax county alone is thought to contain nearly 100,000 head of cattle, and the number in the whole Territory is very large, and rapidly increasing.

Agriculture is mainly limited to the valleys. Those of the Rio Grande, the Pecos, the Canadian, the San Juan, and their tributaries, though generally narrow, contain large areas of arable land of extraordinary fertility. They produce large crops of grain and of most kinds of vegetables, especially onions, beets, turnips, cabbages, cauliflowers, &c. Potatoes succeed best in the mountainous regions. The Taos valley is an exceptionally fine wheat country, and before the advent of railroads supplied a great part of the Territory with its flour. The Mora valley is also celebrated for its wheat. It is as a fruit-producing region, however, that a large portion of the irrigated laud in the Territory specially excels. The Rio Grande valley from Embudo to Mesilla is particularly adapted to this purpose. The area of fruit and vine culture is being yearly extended. Peaches, plums, and apricots come to great perfection in the north, and pears, apples, quinces, cherries, &c., as well as the stone fruits, throughout the middle and southern sections. Grapes flourish from Bernalillo to El Paso, and in some favoured spots like La Joya farther north. The grape principally cultivated is the ‘ ‘ Mission,” which produces excellent wine. Hardy American varieties like the Concord will do well anywhere, and the less hardy European varieties, such as the White Muscat, Flamed Tokay, &c., succeed admirably in the vicinity of Las Cruces. The Pecos valley also produces fruit of extraordinary size and beauty.

The supply of timber, especially of pine, is almost inexhaustible.

It exists in nearly all the hilly and mountainous parts of the Territory, but is of very superior quality as regards both height and straightness in the vicinity of Tierra Amarilla. Cedar abounds in many localities, and the pinon makes an excellent fuel. Oak, maple, walnut, and ash are found to a more limited extent. The varieties of poplar commonly known as cottonwood and quaking aspen are the most common deciduous trees, and grow in almost afl parts of the Territory. Several other native plants are proving of value. The Yucca of different varieties abounds,— Y. filamentosa, commonly called amole or soap-weed, covering immense tracts. Experiments have recently been made with a view to utilizing the fibre of the large serrated variety abundant in the south in the manufacture of rope, and the smaller kinds in paper-making, as well as using the root in preparing a substitute for soap. These bid fair to make this very abundant plant of large commercial value. The canaigre has long been known to possess powerful tanning properties, and recent experiments by the department of agriculture and elsewhere have demonstrated its value as a substitute for bark and other agents. The plant grows wild over a large extent of country, and its importance in a district producing so many hides and skins can hardly be overestimated.

Government and Administration.— The executive officers are a governor and a secretary. The higher judiciary consists of a chief justice and two associates, each of whom presides over the courts in one district, all three sitting together as an appellate supreme court in January of each year. The legislature consists of a council of twelve members and a house of representatives of twenty-four, elected by counties biennially. The governor possesses the veto power. The territorial officials are a treasurer, auditor, attorneygeneral and two district attorneys, and an adjutant-general. In each county there are a probate judge, sheriff, and other local officers, the chief authority being vested in a board of county commissioners of three members elected by the people. The counties are divided into precincts, in each of which there is a justice of the peace and a constable. At present there are twelve counties in the Territory. Public education is in charge of a board of three school commissioners in each county. A tax of ⅛ per cent, is levied for the support of public schools. Precincts may become independent school districts at their option.

Population.— The population of the Territory was 91,874 in 1870 and 119,565 in 1880. Since that time it has steadily increased. The capital, Santa Fé, had 6635 inhabitants in 1880.

History.— The first European that traversed the Territory was Cabeza de Vaca (Nunez), the treasurer of the unfortunate expedition of Panfilo Narvaez to Florida, who, being cast ashore on the coast of Texas, crossed the continent with three companions, and after encountering infinite difficulties and dangers arrived at Spanish settlements near the Gulf of California. On the way he passed through a land of “fixed habitations,” which were evidently the Pueblo towns, followed the Rio Grande for many miles, and on his return to civilization gave such an account of his travels that great interest was excited. In consequence, Coronado, the governor of New Galicia, sent Marcos de Niza, a Franciscan monk, with Stephen, a negro who had been one of Vaca’s companions, to reconnoitre the country. They penetrated as far as Zufii, then called Cibola, where Stephen was killed; but Marcos made up for the lack of substantial success by the marvellous nature of the report he presented. The next year, 1540, Coronado himself headed an expedition of 300 Spaniards and 800 Indians, and started from Culiacan on Easter Monday. He succeeded in finding Cibola, which he subjugated with the surrounding country, and then proceeded to the province of Tiguex (on the Puerco river). After this expedition several friars at various times entered the country, establishing missions, often at the cost of their lives. Among them one of the most prominent was Agustin Ruiz, who was killed in 1581. Almost immediately after this came the expedition of Espejo, who was sent by the viceroy to protect the missions. The next expedition of note was that of Ofiate, toward the close of the century, which carried a large number of additional colonists into the Territory. From this time the Spanish population increased rapidly, and mining was extensively engaged in, the natives being reduced to a virtual condition of slavery in the mines. In 1680 the Indians, who had long been on the verge of rebellion, revolted, and under the lead of Pope, a chief of large influence, marched on Santa Fé, and there besieged Governor Otermin and the Spanish army, who were finally compelled to evacuate the town and retreat to El Paso. For thirteen years the Pueblos continued to control the country, defeating successive Spanish expeditions, until in 1693 Diego de Vargas, the new governor, succeeded in cortquering them and a peace was made, one of the terms of which was that there should be no more slavery in the mines. In fact the Indians had filled up all the shafts in the meantime. For over a century afterwards little occurred to disturb the tranquillity of the Territory, except occasional wars with the surrounding savage tribes. In 1804 Lieutenant Pike, exploring the head-waters of the Arkansas, by mistake camped on Mexican soil and was brought into Santa Fé and sent to Chihuahua as a prisoner. About this time the first Eods were brought across the plains to the New Mexican market,, ing the commencement of the overland traffic of the Santé Fé “Trail,” which increased yearly in importance until the railroads took the place of the “prairie schooner.” In 1820 Mexico became independent, and New Mexico began to be governed by political chiefs instead of Spanish “Gobernadores.”

By a change in the constitution in 1835, governors were appointed instead of elected, and Albino Perez was sent from Mexico as the new ruler. This excited much discontent, which was increased by the enactment of a new tax law two years later. About August 1, 1837, a revolutionary movement commenced in the north of the Territory among both Mexicans and Pueblos, having for its centre the town of Canada or Santa Cruz. Governor Perez marched to meet the insurgents, but was deserted by nearly all his troops and compelled to fly, and was soon after overtaken and killed near Agua Fria. A number of other prominent officials were also killed; and on August 10 Jose Gonzalez, a Taos Indian, was installed as governor in the palace. General Manuel Armijo, who had held high positions before, raised troops at Albuquerque to suppress the revolt, and finally defeated the rebels at Canada. The Mexican Government confirmed his acts...